Plutarch opens his monumental work by establishing a comparative framework between ancient Greek and Roman heroes, beginning with Theseus and Romulus. Both figures emerged from obscure and divine parentage, displayed extraordinary physical strength, and founded two of the world's most enduring cities, Athens and Rome. The text details Theseus's perilous journey to claim his heritage by defeating the notorious bandits and villains who terrorized the roads, establishing justice through the mechanism of turning their own methods against them. Upon reaching Athens, he reconciles with his father Aegeus and later volunteers as tribute to face the Minotaur in Crete, ending the nine-year sacrifice through courage and the clever assistance of Ariadne. Afterwards, Theseus unites the scattered people of Attica into a single commonwealth, establishing democratic principles and founding the Panathenaic games.
Transitioning to the foundation of Rome, Plutarch retells the story of Romulus and Remus, nurtured by a wolf and saved from the tyrant Amulius. After restoring their grandfather Numitor to the throne, the brothers set out to build a city. Following the tragic death of Remus during the establishment of the pomerium, Romulus populates the new settlement by opening a sanctuary and orchestrating the famous rape of the Sabine women. This bold act, initially a cause of war, ultimately cements an alliance between the Romans and Sabines through shared citizenship and mutual respect. Romulus establishes the senate, the patrician class, and fundamental military legions before his mysterious disappearance during a storm, after which he is deified as Quirinus.
The biographical accounts proceed to Lycurgus, the legendary lawgiver of Sparta, who reformed a fractured state by redistributing land, abolishing gold and silver in favor of cumbersome iron currency to eradicate luxury, and instituting common dining halls. Lycurgus prioritized a rigorous, state-controlled education system focused on obedience, physical endurance, and concise speech above all else. He bound the Spartans by oath to observe his laws without alteration until his return, whereupon he chose voluntary exile and starvation to ensure the permanence of his political structure. Finally, the life of Numa Pompilius presents a striking contrast as the second king of Rome, who relied on peace, religion, and justice rather than war. Numa established the religious institutions, reformed the calendar, and cultivated a forty-three-year period of unbroken peace, demonstrating that wisdom and temperance are the true foundations of a lasting state.
