Американский посланник, какими бы ни были его официальные заявления, приватно тогда не придерживался мнения о «недружелюбном настрое». 2 июля 1861 года его сын-секретарь писал: «англичане действительно на нашей стороне; в этом у меня нет абсолютно никаких сомнений. [Позже он был в этом менее уверен.] Но они подумали, что раз распад кажется неизбежным и раз мы, похоже, смирились с этим, то их прокламация — как раз то, что нужно, чтобы сохранить ровные отношения с обеими сторонами, а когда все обернулось иначе, они сделали все возможное, чтобы исправить свою ошибку [194]». Современная историческая оценка лучших американских авторов точно так же снимает с британского правительства обвинение в «недружелюбном настрое [195]», но при этом по-прежнему склонна упоминать о «преждевременном» издании Прокламации.
Таково было и мнение Джона Брайта. Но можно ли критиковать Рассела и правительство хотя бы за проявление неразумной (а не недружелюбной) поспешности? Генри Адамс писал, что британцы считали «распад неизбежным» и думали, «что мы, по-видимому, смирились с этим». Безусловно, это был оправданный вывод из событий в Америке с момента избрания Линкольна в ноябре 1860 года до его инаугурации в марте 1861 года — и даже до более позднего времени, фактически едва ли не до первой недели апреля. В этот период британское министерство проводило строго политику невмешательства. Затем внезапно начинается реальный конфликт, и каждая из сторон в Америке тут же выступает с декларациями: Дэвис — о каперстве, Линкольн — о блокаде и пиратстве, свидетельствующими о том, что морская война — та форма войны, которая наиболее опасна для британских интересов и с наибольшей вероятностью может втянуть британских граждан, — была методом, к которому противоборствующие стороны решили прибегнуть в первую очередь. Если эти декларации не были простым блефом и угрозами, Англия не смела ждать их применения. Она была обязана незамедлительно предупредить своих граждан и прояснить свою позицию как нейтральной стороны. Прокламация не была попыткой «сохранить ровные отношения с обеими сторонами»; это было просто естественным, прямым и незамедлительным уведомлением британских подданных, необходимым в условиях войны de facto.
Более того, чисто в качестве исторического предположения, было к лучшему, что Прокламация появилась раньше прибытия Адамса. Теория северной администрации, в соответствии с которой началась и велась Гражданская война, заключалась в том, что часть народа Соединенных Штатов борется в качестве «мятежников», пытаясь сбросить свою верность, и что в данном конфликте не может быть никакого признания какого-либо южного правительства. На практике во время войны — в вопросах обмена пленными и тому подобном — от этой теории вскоре пришлось отказаться. Тем не менее она была дальновидной и мудрой теорией в плане предвосхищения сугубо внутренней и конституционной проблемы возвращения в Союз мятежных регионов после их разгрома. К сожалению, это было не очевидно для иностранных держав, и это неизбежно осложняло отношения с ними. И все же Адамс был вынужден действовать в рамках этой теории. Если бы он прибыл до издания Прокламации о нейтралитете, трудно представить, как он мог поступить иначе, кроме как официально протестовать против любой британской декларации о нейтралитете, заявляя, что его правительство не признает состояние войны существующим, и грозя покинуть свой пост. В его обязанности входило бы попытаться предотвратить издание Прокламации. К счастью, Даллас остался неосведомленным и без инструкций. К счастью, Адамс прибыл слишком поздно, чтобы помешать этому, и потому был вынужден лишь выражать жалобы. «Преждевременное» издание Прокламации предотвратило неизбежный разрыв отношений на почве столкновения американской теории об «отсутствии состояния войны» и международного факта существования войны. Если бы этот разрыв произошел, как долго британское правительство и народ оставались бы нейтральными и какова была бы конечная судьба Соединенных Штатов [196]?
FOOTNOTES:
[127] Sir George Cornewall Lewis was better informed in the early stages of the American conflict than any of his ministerial colleagues. He was an occasional contributor to the reviews and his unsigned article in the Edinburgh, April, 1861, on "The Election of President Lincoln and its Consequences," was the first analysis of real merit in any of the reviews.
[128] In his Memoirs of an Ex-Minister, Malmesbury makes but three important references to the Civil War in America.
[129] Adams, Charles Francis Adams, p. 165.
[130] Dodd, Jefferson Davis, pp. 227-8.
[131] Ibid.
[132] It was generally whispered in Southern political circles that Davis sent Yancey abroad to get rid of him, fearing his interference at home. If true, this is further evidence of Davis' neglect of foreign policy.
[133] Du Bose, Yancey, p. 604.
[134] Adams, Charles Francis Adams, pp. 149-51.
[135] Possibly the best concise statement of the effect on the North is given in Carl Schurz, Reminiscences, Vol. II, p. 223. Or see my citation of this in The Power of Ideals in American History, ch. I, "Nationality."
[136] Hansard, 3rd. Ser., Vol. CLXII, pp. 1207-9.
[137] See ante, p. 60.
[138] U.S. Messages and Documents, 1861-62, pp. 83-4. Dallas to Seward, May 2, 1862.
[139] An error. Mann did not arrive in London until May 15. Du Bose, Yancey, p. 604.
[140] Richardson, Messages and Papers of the Confederacy, Vol. II, p. 34. This report also shows that Mann was not present at the first interview with Russell.
[141] F.O., America, Vol. 755, No. 128, Russell to Lyons, May 11, 1861. This document is marked "Seen by Lord Palmerston and the Queen." The greater and essential part has been printed in Parliamentary Papers, 1862, Lords, Vol. XXV. "Correspondence on Civil War in United States." No. 33.
[142] Du Bose, Yancey, p. 604.
[143] Lyons Papers. The copy of the Memorandum sent to Lyons is undated, but from Russell's letter to Lyons of May 4, in which it was enclosed, it is presumable that the date of May 3 for the Memorandum is correct.
[144] Ibid., Russell to Lyons, May 4, 1861.
[145] F.O., Am., Vol. 755, No. 121, Russell to Lyons, May 6, 1861.
[146] It is to be remembered that the United States had given no notice of the existence of a state of war.
[147] In diplomatic usage official notification of neutrality to a belligerent has varied, but Russell's letters show him to have appreciated a peculiar delicacy here.
[148] F.O., France, Vol. 1376, No. 553. Draft. Printed in Parliamentary Papers, 1862, Lords, Vol. XXV. "Correspondence on International Maritime Law." No. 1.
[149] It is interesting that on this same day Lyons was writing from Washington advocating, regretfully, because of his sympathy with the North, a strict British neutrality:
"The sympathies of an Englishman are naturally inclined
towards the North--but I am afraid we should find that
anything like a quasi alliance with the men in office here
would place us in a position which would soon become
untenable. There would be no end to the exactions which they
would make upon us, there would be no end to the disregard of
our neutral rights, which they would show if they once felt
sure of us. If I had the least hope of their being able to
reconstruct the Union, or even of their being able to reduce
the South to the condition of a tolerably contented or at all
events obedient dependency, my feeling against Slavery might
lead me to desire to co-operate with them. But I conceive all
chance of this to be gone for ever."
Russell Papers. Lyons to Russell, May 6, 1861.
[150] F.O., France, Vol. 1390. No. 677.
[151] Ibid., No. 684. Printed in part in Parliamentary Papers, 1862, Lords, Vol. XXV. "Correspondence on International Maritime Law." No. 3.
[152] Times, May 9, 1861.
[153] Parliamentary Papers, 1862, Lords, Vol. XXV. "Correspondence on Civil War in the United States." No. 31.
[154] So stated by the Times, May 9, 1861.
[155] Hansard, 3rd. Ser., Vol. CLXII, pp. 1378-9. This blunt expression of Great Britain's Foreign Secretary offers an interesting comparison with the words of the American President Wilson, in a parallel statement at the outbreak of the Great War in 1914. Wilson on August 3, 1914, gave a special audience to newspaper correspondents, begging them to maintain an attitude of calm impartiality. On August 4 he issued the first of several neutrality proclamations in which, following the customary language of such documents, the people were notified that neutrality did not restrict the "full and free expression of sympathies in public and in private." But on August 18 in an address to the people of the United States, this legal phraseology, required by traditional usage was negatived by Wilson's appeal that "we must be impartial in thought as well as in action, must put a curb upon our sentiments as well as upon every transaction that might be construed as a preference of one party to the struggle before another." And three weeks later, on September 8, came the proclamation setting aside October 4 "as a day of prayer to Almighty God," informing Him that war existed and asking His intervention. Possibly Russell's more blunt and pithy expression was better suited to the forthrightness of the British public.
[156] Hansard, ibid., pp. 1564-7. Gregory, a "Liberal-Conservative," though never a "good party man" was then supporting Palmerston's ministry. He was very popular in Parliament, representing by his prominence in sport and society alike, the "gentleman ruling class" of the House of Commons, and was a valuable influence for the South.
[157] This subject is developed at length in Chapter V on "The Declaration of Paris Negotiation."
[158] See ante, p. 88. The chronology of these rapidly succeeding events is interesting:
April 29--Malmesbury states in the Lords that "news was received
this day."
May 1--Naval reinforcements sent to American waters.
May 1--Russell's interview with Dallas.
May 2--Russell's plea in Parliament, "For God's sake keep out of
it."
May 3--Russell's first interview with Yancey and Rost.
May 3--Attorney-General's memorandum.
May 4--Russell's note to Lyons that this is a "regular war."
May 6--Cowley instructed to ask France to recognize Southern
belligerency.
May 6--Lyons notified that England will recognize Southern belligerency.
May 6--Russell states in Parliament that privateers can not be
treated as pirates.
[Presumably, since parliamentary sittings begin in the late
afternoons, the instructions to diplomats were drawn before
the statement in Parliament.]
May 9--Russell's second interview with Yancey and Rost.
May 9--Sir George Lewis announces that a Proclamation of Neutrality
will be issued soon.
May 13--The Proclamation authorized.
May 13--Adams reaches Liverpool.
May 14--The Proclamation officially published in the London Gazette.
May 14--Adams in London "ready for business."
It would appear that Russell's expressions in Parliament on May 2 indicated clearly the purpose of the Government. This was notified to Lyons on May 4, which may be taken as the date when the governmental position had become definitely fixed, even though official instructions were not sent Lyons until the 6th.
[159] F.O., Am., Vol. 780, No. 50. Bunch to Russell, April 19, 1861.
[160] F.O., Am., 789, Monson to Alston, received May 21.
[161] F.O., Am., 763, No. 197, Lyons to Russell, received May 26. The full statement is:
"To an Englishman, sincerely interested in the welfare of
this country, the present state of things is peculiarly
painful. Abhorrence of slavery, respect for law, more
complete community of race and language, enlist his
sympathies on the side of the North. On the other hand, he
cannot but reflect that any encouragement to the predominant
war feeling in the North cannot but be injurious to both
sections of the country. The prosecution of the war can lead
only to the exhaustion of the North by an expenditure of life
and money on an enterprise in which success and failure would
be alike disastrous. It must tend to the utter devastation of
the South. It would at all events occasion a suspension of
Southern cultivation which would be calamitous even more to
England than to the Northern States themselves."
[162] Hansard, 3rd. Ser., CLXII, p. 1763.
[163] Ibid., pp. 1830-34. In the general discussion in the Lords there appeared disagreement as to the status of privateering. Granville, Derby, and Brougham, spoke of it as piracy. Earl Hardwicke thought privateering justifiable. The general tone of the debate, though only on this matter of international practice, was favourable to the North.
[164] For example see Hertslet, Map of Europe by Treaty, Vol. I, p. 698, for the Proclamation issued in 1813 during the Spanish-American colonial revolutions.
[165] Hansard, 3rd. Ser., CLXII, pp. 2077-2088.
[166] Parliamentary Papers, 1862, Lords, Vol. XXV, "Correspondence on Civil War in the United States." No. 35. Russell to Lyons, May 15, 1861. Another reason for Lyons' precaution was that while his French colleague, Mercier, had been instructed to support the British Proclamation, no official French Proclamation was issued until June 10, and Lyons, while he trusted Mercier, felt that this French delay needed some explanation. Mercier told Seward, unofficially, of his instructions and even left a copy of them, but at Seward's request made no official communication. Lyons, later, followed the same procedure. This method of dealing with Seward came to be a not unusual one, though it irritated both the British and French Ministers.
[167] U.S. Messages and Documents, 1861-2, p. 85. Adams to Seward, May 17, 1861.
[168] Bedford died that day.
[169] U.S. Messages and Documents, 1861-2, pp. 90-96. Adams to Seward, May 21, 1861.
[170] Bernard, The Neutrality of Great Britain during the American Civil War, p. 161. The author cites at length despatches and documents of the period.
[171] Spectator, May 18, 1861.
[172] Spectator, June 1, 1861.
[173] Saturday Review, June 1, 1861.
[174] U.S. Messages and Documents, 1861-2, p. 82.
[175] Ibid., p. 98. Adams to Seward, June 7, 1861. See also p. 96, Adams to Seward, May 31, 1861.
[176] Russell Papers. Lyons to Russell, June 10, 1861.
[177] Ibid., Lyons to Russell, June 14, 1861.
[178] F.O., Am., Vol. 766, No. 282. Lyons to Russell, June 17, 1861. Seward's account, in close agreement with that of Lyons, is in U.S. Messages and Documents, 1861-2, p. 106. Seward to Adams, June 19, 1861.
[179] Bancroft in his Seward (II, p. 183) prints a portion of an unpublished despatch of Seward to Dayton in Paris, July 1, 1861, as "his clearest and most characteristic explanation of what the attitude of the government must be in regard to the action of the foreign nations that have recognized the belligerency of the 'insurgents.'"
"Neither Great Britain nor France, separately nor both
together, can, by any declaration they can make, impair the
sovereignty of the United States over the insurgents, nor
confer upon them any public rights whatever. From first to
last we have acted, and we shall continue to act, for the
whole people of the United States, and to make treaties for
disloyal as well as loyal citizens with foreign nations, and
shall expect, when the public welfare requires it, foreign
nations to respect and observe the treaties.
"We do not admit, and we never shall admit, even the
fundamental statement you assume--namely, that Great Britain
and France have recognized the insurgents as a belligerent
party. True, you say they have so declared. We reply: Yes,
but they have not declared so to us. You may rejoin: Their
public declaration concludes the fact. We, nevertheless,
reply: It must be not their declaration, but the fact, that
concludes the fact."
[180] The Times, June 3, 1861.
[181] Ibid., June 11, 1861.
[182] U.S. Messages and Documents, 1861-2, p. 87.
[183] Parliamentary Papers, 1862, Lords, Vol. XXV. "Correspondence on Civil War in the United States." No. 56. Lyons to Russell, June 17, 1861, reporting conference with Seward on June 15.
[184] U.S. Messages and Documents, 1861-62, p. 104. Adams to Seward, June 14, 1861.
[185] Bancroft, the biographer of Seward, takes the view that the protests against the Queen's Proclamation, in regard to privateering and against interviews with the Southern commissioners were all unjustifiable. The first, he says, was based on "unsound reasoning" (II, 177). On the second he quotes with approval a letter from Russell to Edward Everett, July 12, 1861, showing the British dilemma: "Unless we meant to treat them as pirates and to hang them we could not deny them belligerent rights" (II, 178). And as to the Southern commissioners he asserts that Seward, later, ceased protest and writes: "Perhaps he remembered that he himself had recently communicated, through three different intermediaries, with the Confederate commissioners to Washington, and would have met them if the President had not forbidden it." Bancroft, Seward, II, 179.
[186] Du Bose, Yancey, p. 606.
[187] A Cycle of Adams' Letters, 1861-1865, Vol. I, p. 11. Adams to C.F. Adams, Jnr., June 14, 1861.
[188] See ante, p. 98. Russell's report to Lyons of this interview of June 12, lays special emphasis on Adams' complaint of haste. Parliamentary Papers, 1862, Lords, Vol. XXV, "Correspondence on Civil War in the United States," No. 52. Russell to Lyons, June 21, 1861.
[189] Hansard, 3rd. Ser., CLXXVII, pp. 1620-21, March 13, 1865.
[190] See ante, p. 85.
[191] C.F. Adams, Charles Francis Adams, p. 172. In preparing a larger life of his father, never printed, the son later came to a different opinion, crediting Russell with foresight in hastening the Proclamation to avoid possible embarrassment with Adams on his arrival. The quotation from the printed "Life" well summarizes, however, current American opinion.
[192] U.S. Documents, Ser. No. 347, Doc. 183, p. 6.
[193] The United States Supreme Court in 1862, decided that Lincoln's blockade proclamation of April 19, 1861, was "itself official and conclusive evidence ... that a state of war existed." (Moore, Int. Law Digest, I, p. 190.)
[194] A Cycle of Adams' Letters, I, p. 16. Henry Adams to C.F. Adams, Jnr.