Book summary “Survival in the killing fields”: summary

Introduction

You live in a peaceful society where you trust your government, your profession, and your daily routine. Imagine waking up to find that civilization has vanished overnight, and your medical degree, family ties, and personal possessions now mark you for execution. How do you survive when the state turns ordinary citizens into desperate thieves and disposable war slaves?

This book answers that question by documenting the Cambodian genocide through the eyes of a trained surgeon who lived through the nightmare. A survivor of the Cambodian genocide recounts how ordinary humans were reduced to desperate thieves and war slaves under the brutal Pol Pot regime. You will discover how a peaceful nation collapsed into totalitarian terror, how families were systematically torn apart, and how human resilience endured unimaginable cruelty.

The book follows a harrowing progression from serene pre-war village life to the sudden evacuation of Phnom Penh, years of backbreaking forced labor, and a perilous escape to freedom.

• How did pre-war political corruption and civil war pave the way for the Khmer Rouge?
• What daily strategies allowed ordinary people to endure starvation, torture, and disease in the killing fields?
• How did a traumatized survivor transform his personal tragedy into global activism and an Academy Award-winning film role?

1. Pre-War Cambodia and Village Roots

Pre-war Cambodian life was centered around serene agricultural cycles and deep-seated cultural mentalities like kum.

Samrong Yong Village

Cambodian village life before the civil war appeared serene and peaceful, centered around seasonal rice agriculture and daily visits from Buddhist monks. Ngor describes the visual landscape of the village, the rice paddies divided by low earthen dikes, and the saffron-robed monks with shaved heads walking from house to house.

The Mentality of Kum

Kum is a deeply ingrained Cambodian mentality of long-standing grudges leading to delayed, highly destructive revenge. Ngor recalls witnessing a shoot-out around 1950 when a guerrilla rebel attacked the village garrison after a dispute, leaving a dead guerrilla covered in Buddha amulets outside his parents' house.

2. Society, Corruption, and Politics

Systemic bribery known as bonjour and Prince Sihanouk's neutral diplomacy defined the fragile political landscape.

Government corruption operated as an accepted replacement for formal taxation. Officials made their living from bribes rather than state salaries. Business owners factored these illegal payments into operations as long as officials did not demand excessive amounts. Ngor's brother Pheng Huor regularly paid off foresters and military checkpoints, where the local slang term bonjour doubled as a word for graft.

Sihanouk Neutrality Role

Prince Norodom Sihanouk maintained Cambodia's status as an island of peace by balancing communist and Western powers. Sihanouk used populist appeal, royal pageantry, and Angkor pride to unite the ethnic majority while allowing covert foreign military activity. Sihanouk regularly addressed the public via government radio for hours, praising Cambodia as a neutral nation while the Vietnam War raged next door.

3. Civil War and the Phnom Penh Bubble

Prince Sihanouk allied with his former enemies, giving the Khmer Rouge instant credibility. Ousted by Lon Nol, Sihanouk spoke over Radio Peking to form a government-in-exile. He urged loyal rural followers to join the communists, sparking civil war.

Sihanouk's alliance with the Khmer Rouge sparked civil war while Phnom Penh enjoyed a luxurious bubble of war-profiteering.

Sihanouk Alliance

Lon Nol led the military with extreme incompetence and superstition. He gave untrained civilian recruits Buddha amulets before sending them into battle. North Vietnamese guerrillas blew up the Japanese bridge across the Tonle Sap River in 1972, cutting off Phnom Penh.

Urban Bubble of Prosperity

Phnom Penh experienced a superficial bubble of prosperity for the elite. Massive foreign aid created a booming economy for the nouveaux riches. You could watch nightclubs and luxury cars thrive while refugees crowded the outskirts.

4. The Fall of Phnom Penh and the Great Exodus

The Khmer Rouge forced millions out of Phnom Penh on a false three-day pretext, executing professionals and erasing social hierarchies.

Fall of Phnom Penh Evacuation

On April 17, 1975, Phnom Penh fell to the Khmer Rouge. Three to four million residents faced an immediate forced evacuation. Armed guerrillas claimed Angka would provide everything and ordered everyone out. You were told it was a temporary three-day move to avoid American bombing. Guerrillas broke into the military hospital with weapons drawn. A twelve-year-old guerrilla pointed an AK-47 at your temple. You lied about your profession to escape execution while leaving an open-abdomen patient behind.

Survival Disguise Tactic

To survive the initial purges, you had to strip away your status symbols and alter your appearance.

You wore a woman's blouse and wrapped a checkered krama around your head. Nine nurses and staff members accompanied you on the exodus. You must follow these rules to avoid execution:

• Do not use titles of respect or professional designations like doctor or luk.
• Address companions and superiors simply as brother.
• Wear modified or non-professional clothing and wrap a krama around the head to obscure identity.

5. Adapting to the Barter Economy

Stripped of currency, survivors relied on portable gold, hidden medical supplies, and careful management of guards.

Barter as Survival Key

With seventeen million riels in bank savings rendered worthless, physical goods became your only usable assets. You needed gold, jewelry, and twenty-six hundred dollars in US currency for future survival. You must follow these rules to secure your assets:

• Identify portable valuables such as gold, jewelry, and US currency to use for future barter.
• Secure essential medical supplies like antibiotics, antimalarial drugs, and vitamins to protect against tropical illnesses and trade.

Secret Mission to Phnom Penh

You befriended the local illiterate mit guard by feeding him generously and acting as your household spokesman. When the mit guard needed intravenous serum because his unit had to use two to seven-month-old coconuts for transfusions, you saw an opportunity. You rode a Vespa past military checkpoints with the mit and an officer named One-Pen by shouting medicine for Angka. You successfully recovered your hidden gold, dollars, and medicines from your apartments. You must follow these steps for safe passage:

• Act as a spokesperson to handle all interactions with local guards and deflect suspicion.
• Feed guards and local officials generously to secure their cooperation and goodwill.
• Keep hidden assets and medical supplies concealed until a safe opportunity arises to retrieve them.
• Leverage the ruling regime's specific shortages, such as medicine, to negotiate freedom of movement or resources.
• Use authorized slogans and trusted companions to pass through military checkpoints without arousing suspicion.

6. Social Stratification and Medical Collapse

Base vs New People

The revolutionary society was rigidly stratified into base people who supported the regime early and new people who were treated as the bottom class.

Villagers in a jungle settlement who had consented to Khmer Rouge rule earlier were classified as moultan chah, while evacuated city dwellers like Huoy and the author were moultan thmai. An eighteen-year-old female comrade lectured twenty other new people sitting in a forest clearing about the Three Mountains and how an ant can kill an elephant.

Fatal Medical Incompetence

The replacement of trained medical professionals with ignorant ideologues led to tragic, entirely preventable deaths.

Cadres announced that formal schooling, exams, and professional qualifications were useless, asserting that farming and digging canals were the only necessary credentials. Ten-year-old Khmer Rouge soldiers found French medical textbooks and labeled the author as CIA, tearing out pages to roll cigarettes with tobacco. When village chief Neang asked for help with his eleven-month-old sick infant, Khmer Rouge medics injected five cc's of Thiamine into the convulsing baby, leading directly to its death.

7. Forced Labor and Public Health Disaster

Deported citizens were harnessed to ploughs like animals, leading to widespread starvation, oedema, and reliance on folk remedies.

Human Ploughing

Lacking sufficient oxen to work the fields, teenage soldiers harnessed human beings to wooden ploughs and harrows. They beat workers with whips when they could not move fast enough. Haing Ngor was chosen by a soldier to pull and push a heavy wooden plough alongside an ox while being threatened with a whip. Starving city dwellers survived by mastering rural foraging techniques to find alternative protein sources. Haing Ngor and Huoy foraged for red ants and hunted tokays in tree holes. You can follow these foraging steps:

• Rub ashes onto hands and arms to prevent red ant stings
• Hold a plastic pail with water and tip ant nests into it with a stick

Public Health Collapse

Urban deportees lacked natural immunities to local microorganisms, resulting in rampant malaria, pneumonia, and amoebic dysentery. Haing Ngor wasted away from 135 to 140 pounds down to 70 pounds while suffering from severe amoebic dysentery in Phum Chhleav. Huoy traded clothing for 15 250-mg tetracycline tablets bought for gold, and later fed him a single yam completely burned to charcoal. You can prepare carbon remedies using these steps:

• Trim fat off meat or tubers before grilling
• Burn food in the fire until it is completely black on the outside or all the way through
• Trim off wood ashes from the burned food
• Cut the charred food into small pieces before feeding it slowly with a spoon

8. Life as War Slaves in Cooperatives

The Khmer Rouge systematically destroyed private property and family structures to secure absolute devotion to the Organization.

Angka confiscated private goods and dismantled family units. Food was distributed unequally despite promises of absolute equality. You were treated as a war slave beneath the egalitarian rhetoric of building a classless nation.

Front lines leaders demanded 18 to 20 hours of daily work while soldiers and leaders ate well from supplies delivered to their headquarters. You had to process harvested rice manually before cooking:

• Pour paddy rice into a hand-operated mill and turn the crank to grind the grain between two flat stones
• Pour the mixture on a large flat basket and toss the grain in the air to let lighter husks float away in the breeze
• Polish the rice in a foot-operated wooden mortar and pestle device
• Rub rice and water between palms, remove floating impurities, drain, add fresh water, cover, and simmer until steam holes appear

You supplemented meager rations with protein from the rice fields:

• Reach into the crab burrows in the dykes in the middle of the day when the water is warm
• Cook captured crabs in the evening after political meetings
• Put fish or animal bones back in the pot, wait until they are soft, and eat them for calcium and protein

Huoy and you sometimes ate 15 to 20 crabs in a single meal.

9. Terror, Spies, and the Prison System

Child spies monitored the population while professional torturers used mutilation and public executions to maintain absolute control.

The regime maintained absolute control through a total absence of formal laws, relying instead on sudden arrests and collective silence. Three armed soldiers walked across the fields to the canal and led away two new people whose arms were tied tightly behind their backs. Young boys around twelve years old acted as secret spies called chhlop. Two young chhlop discovered your hidden basket of arrowroot and reported you to Chev.

Interrogation and Mutilation Prison

The Angka Leu prison system employed professional torturers who utilized systematic mutilation to extract false confessions about past military ranks.

Prisoners were tied to mango trees, infested with red ants, and subjected to physical torture such as fingernail extraction and finger amputation with a hatchet. A burly torturer wearing a Montagut shirt stepped on your wrist and used a hatchet to chop off part of your little finger after accusing you of lying about driving a Peugeot 404 taxi. Specialists carried out public atrocities to induce terror. An interrogator slit the stomach of a pregnant woman, took the fetus out, and hung it from the eaves of the prison alongside others.

10. Crucifixion and Survival in Secondary Camps

Inmates endured horrific torture like crucifixion over rice hull fires before reuniting with loved ones in cooperative camps.

Crucifixion and Slow Torture

You suffered prolonged physical torture designed to maximize pain over several days without causing immediate death. Guards hoisted wooden crosses six feet off the ground and built fires three feet below using wood and rice hulls. You survived four days and four nights of crucifixion with no food or water. Stinging smoke, extreme heat, mosquito bites, and swarming flies inflicted intense agony.

Reunion After Surviving Hell

Out of a group of eighteen prisoners, only five survived two long months at the secondary jail. Returning to your cooperative brought emotional reunions with loved ones. Huoy recognized you from a list read by Chev and bathed you with a real soap bar. She shared the joyous news that your father was still alive.

11. Father's Advice and Rice Cultivation

To survive an irrational and brutal regime, you must suppress emotions, act as a blank wall, and avoid drawing any negative attention.

Ngor's father counsels you to keep your mouth shut, cool your heart, conceal your facial expressions, and plant a kapok tree to let the destructive regime self-destruct. You must heed these rules to stay alive under Angka:

• Keep your mouth shut and do not give the authorities any excuse to take you away.
• Cool your heart and control your emotions so they do not show on your face.
• Plant a kapok tree as a symbol of patience and quiet endurance.
• Pretend nothing has happened if you encounter someone who wronged you.

Ngor's father warns you not to seek revenge against the informant Pen Tip because the Khmer Rouge would kill you for it.

Rice Cultivation Process

Rice farming involved precise, backbreaking stages of irrigation management, transplanting, and harvesting that consumed all waking hours under threat of starvation.

You follow specific physical steps during the grueling agricultural labor:

• Place paddy rice in pails for a few days to sprout before scattering them into fertilized water.
• Uproot seedlings by standing with bent knees, grabbing shoots in a circular motion, and shaking mud off the roots.
• Transfer shoots to the right hand and plant them in equilateral triangles by poking holes with the thumb and tamping mud with the forefinger.

Workers labored in long lines across vast fields from November 1976 when the harvest began until January 1977 when rations were cut back to watery rice again.

12. Dam Delusions and Armed Rebellion

Grandiose forced labor projects and forced marriages provoked desperate armed rebellions and local regime fractures.

Dam Project Delusions

The Khmer Rouge pursued grandiose, impossible infrastructure projects like a massive ring-shaped hydroelectric dam using only clay and hoes, driven by ideological delusions rather than physics or logic. Chea Huon delivered a speech at a mass meeting claiming the dam would provide year-round irrigation, electricity, factories, and even personal cars and skyscrapers, despite the complete lack of concrete, bulldozers, or engineering feasibility. At the dam dedication ceremony attended by over 10,000 war slaves, Chea Huon promised future skyscrapers and automobiles while the entire project site possessed only two machines: a generator and a jeep.

Armed Rebellion and Purges

Discontent eventually boiled over into armed rebellion, shattering the myth of the regime's invincibility even though the uprisings were brutally suppressed through mass executions. A rebel leader named Thai and a small group killed soldiers, stole their weapons, and hijacked a train toward Battambang to join freedom fighters near the Thai border, prompting retaliatory purges. Following the train hijacking, soldiers executed about a hundred prisoners every afternoon for a week to frighten the remaining workers into submission.

13. Water Torture and Domestic Partnership

Resisting revenge and maintaining an interdependent marital partnership provided an anchor against extreme psychological trauma.

Extreme Interrogation and Water Torture

Torturers used a metal-spiked spring-loaded vice that tightened whenever the victim moved. They paired this with water dripping from a raised pail onto a single spot on the forehead to induce agony. During his third imprisonment, you face eighty prisoners in the jail and endure thousands of water drops falling from a pail suspended seven or eight feet in the air until the thousandth drop mark turns soreness into a severe headache. The thatched jail mysteriously catches fire, and only twenty-eight survivors of the prison fire escape.

Domestic Partnership as Survival Anchor

Ngor contemplates making cakes from the poisonous bark of the kantout tree to kill Pen Tip. He stops himself to avoid becoming kum-monuss, choosing to wait rather than act out his dark impulses according to kama. You can design and build a sturdy house on an elevated hillock in Phum Ra by following specific construction steps:

• Choose an elevated site on a hillock to prevent flooding.
• Sprinkle water on the dirt floor in the morning to keep it cool all day.
• Provide plenty of ventilation with doors and windows.
• Plant climbing squash on the roof and banana trees and climbing beans on the south side for shade and cover.

14. Tragic Loss of Huoy and Final Escape

Pregnancy Crossing the Sea

Pregnancy under the Khmer Rouge was perilous, viewed by Cambodians as a dangerous voyage called crossing the sea.

Huoy became pregnant at the end of 1977 as rations improved slightly during the rice harvest. Huoy was twenty-seven years old when she became pregnant. Huoy's belly began to show in the third month. Huoy was pregnant and suffering from a swollen belly and extreme fatigue in the sixth month. Huoy felt her first labor cramps when she was seven months' pregnant. Huoy suffered from severe morning sickness and could only keep down sweet foods, prompting Haing Ngor to trade gold for palm tree sugar.

Retreat and Final Escape

The tragic death of pregnant Huoy and the collapse of Angka authority propelled the author toward a final escape.

Huoy died on June 2, 1978. Haing Ngor formed an escaping party of fourteen relatives, including Ngor Balam, Hok, and orphaned children, and finally marched toward National Route 5 and Thailand.

15. Vietnamese Invasion and Border Hazards

The Vietnamese invasion triggered mass escapes through minefields, corrupt checkpoints, and hostile border terrain.

Vietnamese Invasion and Liberation

Vietnamese military forces invaded Cambodia to overthrow the brutal Pol Pot regime. You witnessed how superior force and discipline routed the Khmer Rouge. Four years under the regime ended when Haing Ngor reached liberation in April 1979. Forty to fifty survivors in Haing Ngor's foraging group reached safety. In April 1979, Haing Ngor was trapped in a rice field during a skirmish until a Vietnamese soldier using an AK-47 and wearing a green helmet and red star rescued and directed him to safety.

Border Crossing Smuggling and Corruption

Fleeing Cambodia required navigating corrupt guides, fake military checkpoints, and extortionist bandits. Haing Ngor paid a guide 4.8 damleung of gold for his group. Thirty-seven tollgates stopped them from Nimitt to the Dangrek Mountains.

• Confer with trusted acquaintances to select an experienced local guide from Nimitt for the journey across mountain trails.
• Hide gold and valuables in multiple secure locations such as waistbands, footwear, undergarments, and taped under the arms of children.
• Steal back confiscated luggage from checkpoint piles when guards are distracted.

16. Refugees, Root Causes, and Pol Pot

Geopolitical failures and Pol Pot's fanatical ideology culminated in a national holocaust that decimated professional and family life.

Root Causes Cambodian Failure

Cambodia fell because of a long political chain reaction. France failed to build a middle class, the US pushed the country rightward through unbalancing policies and bombings, China backed communist extremists, and Vietnam pursued its own interests. Most importantly, Cambodian leaders shared an excessive pride and a feeling of racial superiority that blinded them to reality. Sihanouk told citizens they were an island of peace, while Lon Nol and Pol Pot implemented murderous purges based on racial purity and extremist agrarian fantasies.

Saloth Sar Rise

Saloth Sar evolved from a mediocre student in Paris into the ruthless dictator known as Pol Pot. Born in 1928, he studied in Paris, formed a communist study circle with Ieng Sary, and returned to work as an underground organizer. After joining the Indochinese Communist Party, he resented Vietnamese control, took the pseudonym Brother Number One in 1963, and adopted the name Pol Pot upon taking Phnom Penh. Saloth Sar kept a photograph of Joseph Stalin in his Paris room and signed radical articles as Original Khmer.

17. Resettlement and Flight to America

Camp medical work and encounters with supportive aid workers paved the way for culture shock and migration to America.

Khao I Dang Medical Work

Cambodian refugees in camps maintained deep-seated shyness and suspicion toward Westerners due to cultural deference and trauma from a regime where speaking wrongly meant death. Refugees on the border and in Lumpini avoided Westerners, whispering that Americans all worked for the CIA and that mistakes would reach the top. The Sakeo refugee camp housed a population largely consisting of starving Khmer Rouge fighters and their families alongside traumatized innocent civilians. About two-thirds of the camp population were Khmer Rouge and their families among forty-five thousand innocent Cambodians pushed over the border by the Thai government.

Khao-I-Dang camp provided a crucial sanctuary for non-communist Cambodians, featuring extensive international medical relief and psychological support. Thirty-seven agencies ran programmes in Khao-I-Dang for an 130000 official peak population of Khao-I-Dang. Haing Ngor held a twelve-year-old dehydrated orphan girl with falciparum malaria in his arms as she died, reflecting on her shared suffering.

Flight to America

Encounters with respectful and egalitarian Western aid workers like John Crowley helped dismantle Ngor's fear and distrust of foreigners. John Crowley, working for the JVA, treated Ngor as an equal, listened to his four years of suffering squeezed into conversation, and used his authority to secure Ngor's flight to America.

The mass migration of refugees to the United States on chartered aircraft involved profound culture shock regarding modern technology and unfamiliar foods.

Refugees filled a seven-hundred-seat Boeing 747 on Flying Tiger Airlines, experiencing airsickness and struggling to understand Western amenities. Refugees on the flight tried to smell and taste cheese sauce on ICEM airline food trays, finding it completely unfamiliar and suspicious. You must follow these rules when using unfamiliar plumbing and facilities:

• Lock the lavatory door to automatically turn on the lights
• Use the flushing handle when finished with the toilet

A young USCC Cambodian caseworker abandoned Ngor at the San Francisco airport with heavy luggage. Ngor yelled at the young USCC caseworker in an airport corridor, telling him that arrogance causes countries to fall when people fail to help vulnerable refugees. Ngor abandoned his assigned destination in Ohio to seek out family in Los Angeles, ultimately renting a tiny apartment with almost no funds remaining. Ngor and Balam bought a bed and table for $350, leaving Ngor with only $4 to my name after paying deposits and rent from twelve hundred dollars saved from working as a refugee camp doctor.

18. Making The Killing Fields and Winning the Oscar

Channeling personal trauma into film acting culminated in an Academy Award and global recognition for Cambodian suffering.

Acting Through Personal Memory

Casting director Pat Golden recruited non-actor Cambodian refugees for The Killing Fields. You can understand how director Roland Joffé helped Ngor master acting by instructing him to channel real memories of trauma into emotional scenes. When filming the emotional farewell scene at the French embassy, Ngor broke down repeatedly by recalling his actual goodbyes and the death of Huoy. Small sensory reminders, such as the sound of dripping water or filming violent interrogation scenes, instantly transported Ngor back to prison and the killing fields. You can apply these performance techniques:

• Remember situations from personal life that match the required dramatic scenario.
• Channel real past emotions into the performance instead of relying on memorized technique.
• React naturally to fellow actors who are established personal friends.

Academy Award Success

The film premiered globally in New York and London, moving audiences and dignitaries like the Duchess of Kent to tears. Ngor won a Golden Globe, two British Academy Awards, and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor at the 1985 Oscars. Ngor won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor while seated in the second row, famously delivering an unscripted speech thanking the Academy, the filmmakers, and God-Buddha.

19. Activism, Foundation, and Tragic End

Haing Ngor dedicated his post-Oscar life to charitable foundations and advocacy before his tragic murder in Los Angeles.

Following his Oscar win, you saw Ngor travel widely to meet President Reagan and serve as a spokesman for Cambodians. He quit his job at the Chinatown Service Centre in 1985 and helped establish a medical training center at the Thai-Cambodian border. He played roles in two Chinese-language movies, a French documentary, episodes of Hotel and Miami Vice, and a miniseries called In Love and War.

Haing Ngor Foundation

Ngor established The Dr Haing S. Ngor Foundation with Jack Ong to channel celebrity status into charitable work. You can see the results in these initiatives:

• giving talks to Amnesty International chapters and schools warning against gangs;
• opening an orphanage in Phnom Penh;
• building a schoolhouse in Samrong Yong;
• donating medical supplies.

He returned to Cambodia as a wealthy celebrity and grew conflicted upon realizing officials were complicit in systemic forestry corruption. Global Witness revealed that 32 secret forest concessions awarded in 1995 covered 6,464,021 hectares, amounting to 35 percent of Cambodia's total land area.

Murder and Trial

In February 1996, three members of the Oriental LazyBoyz gang confronted Ngor in his carport alley. They shot him when he refused to surrender his gold locket containing a picture of his late wife Huoy. Sophia Ngor and Jack Ong attended the five-month trial. Gang members Tak Sun Tan, Jason Chan, and Indra Lim were found guilty of first-degree murder and robbery, receiving sentences of 25 years to life or life without parole. Investigators found 2,900 dollars left unnoticed in a jacket on the back seat of Ngor's car.

10 Key Ideas

1. Disguising professional status, adopting simple attire, and eliminating titles of respect allowed educated professionals to survive the initial Khmer Rouge purges in Phnom Penh.
2. Stripped of worthless bank savings, survivors relied on hidden gold, US currency, and medical supplies to barter with illiterate guards for essential resources.
3. Replacing trained medical professionals with ignorant ideologues and children led to fatal medical incompetence, widespread starvation, and horrific public health disasters.
4. The Angka Leu prison system utilized child spies, public executions, and severe physical torture, including fingernail extraction and water drops, to extract false confessions.
5. Inmates endured prolonged physical torture like crucifixion over rice hull fires and water torture in thatched jails before facing mass executions.
6. Heeding counsel to suppress emotions, conceal facial expressions, and maintain silence helped survivors navigate an irrational and brutal regime without drawing negative attention.
7. Forced marriages, grandiose hydroelectric dam delusions, and violent purges provoked desperate armed rebellions and local regime fractures among starving war slaves.
8. Navigating treacherous border terrain, minefields, and corrupt checkpoints required experienced guides, hidden valuables, and immense courage following the Vietnamese invasion.
9. Resettling in America presented profound culture shock and economic struggles, requiring refugees to adapt to unfamiliar modern technology, plumbing, and foreign foods.
10. Channeling personal trauma into film acting culminated in an Academy Award, allowing Haing Ngor to dedicate his post-Oscar life to humanitarian foundations and global activism.