РАБСТВО ИНДЕЙЦЕВ В КОЛОНИАЛЬНУЮ ЭПОХУ В СОВРЕМЕННЫХ ГРАНИЦАХ СОЕДИНЕННЫХ ШТАТОВ
BY
ALMON WHEELER LAUBER, Ph.M.
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of doctor of philosophy
in the
Faculty of Political Science
Columbia University
NEW YORK
1913
Copyright, 1913
BY
ALMON WHEELER LAUBER
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Цель данного исследования — выявить до сих пор остававшуюся без внимания сторону ранней американской истории: порабощение индейцев. Масштабы африканского рабства по сравнению с индейским настолько выделили первое из них, что при изучении института рабства в целом само существование индейского рабства в колониальный период было практически полностью упущено из виду. В данном обсуждении показано, что порабощение коренных жителей практиковалось самими индейцами, испанцами, французами и англичанами; однако ни у одной из европейских наций оно не существовало как система, отдельная и обособленная от африканского рабства. Хотя вопрос о содержании индейцев в качестве рабов тремя европейскими нациями уже рассматривался, автор намерен сделать главный упор на этом институте в том виде, в каком он практиковался англичанами.
Тот факт, что до сих пор теме индейского рабства не уделялось должного внимания, затруднил сбор материалов. Многие из важных источников, затрагивающих эту тему, никогда не публиковались и широко разбросаны. Значительная часть даже этих материалов носит расплывчатый характер и, следовательно, более или менее неудовлетворительна. Быстрый рост числа африканских рабов в колониальный период привел к повсемельному использованию таких терминов, как «рабы», «негры и другие рабы» и «негры», без уточнения индейских рабов как таковых. Это особенно справедливо в отношении колониальных законов, даже в тех колониях, где индейское рабство существовало в наибольшей степени.
Автор выражает свою признательность миссис Н. М. Суррей за ее великодушное разрешение использовать рукописные материалы, собранные в южных штатах; библиотекарям и их помощникам из Массачусетского исторического общества, Нью-Йоркского исторического общества, Пенсильванского исторического общества и Мэрилендского исторического общества — за их многочисленные любезности; а также профессору Герберту Л. Осгуду из Колумбийского университета — за его советы и за предоставление выписок из архивов Общества распространения Евангелия в иностранных частях. Автор выражает самую искреннюю благодарность профессору Уильяму Р. Шепарду из Колумбийского университета, под руководством которого выполнялась эта работа. Его предложения и критические замечания были неоценимы, и он щедро уделял свое время чтению как рукописи, так и корректуры.
Алмон У. Лаубер.
Нью-Йорк, 15 марта 1913 г.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I
THE INSTITUTION AS PRACTICED BY THE INDIANS,
THE SPANIARDS AND THE FRENCH
CHAPTER I
Enslavement by the Indians Themselves
PAGE
Introductory statement 25
Indian slavery among the Indians practically universal 25
More extensively used among some tribes than others 25
No entire tribes held in subjection 25
Slavery on the Great Plains and Atlantic Slope 25
Different from that in west 25
Not slavery in the true sense in many cases 25
“Slavery” confounded with “prisoner” and “adoption” 25
Slavery to be interpreted in the broadest sense 26
Processes of enslavement 26–35
For crime 26
Indians staked themselves when gambling 26
Indians sold children in time of famine 26
Barter with other tribes 27–28
Warfare 29–35
Coming of Europeans affected slavery 33–35
Stirring up tribes against one another 34
Employment of Indian slaves 35–39
Domestic servants 35–36
Mistresses 36
Agricultural laborers 36
Miners 37
Hunters 37
Fishermen 37
Objects of barter and trade 38
Treatment of slaves 39–40
Depended upon individual owners 39
A distinct class in west 39
A part of family or tribe in east 39
Adoption 39
Treatment generally kind 39
Instances of cruel treatment 40
Precautions to prevent escape 40
Women of tribe have power to spare or kill 40
Punishment by death 41
Distinction between owner and slave not so clear as between the European and his slave 41
Privileges and favors 41–42
Manumission 43–45
Marriage into the tribe 43
Birth 43
Death of owner 43
Adoption 43–44
Peace with tribe to which slave belonged 44
Exchange 44
Messenger in formal declaration of war 44
CHAPTER II
Enslavement by the Spaniards
Idea of slavery 48
Practiced by Indians 48
Captives of Spanish wars enslaved 48
Sanctioned by Church and State 48
Public opinion 48
Enslavement of Indians would Christianize them 49
Processes of enslavement 49–55
War 49
Spanish explorers 49–55
Employment of slaves 55
Guides 55
Interpreters 55
Camp laborers 55
Burden bearers 55
Cooks 55
Mistresses 55
Treatment 55–57
Depended upon individual owners 55
Kindness to enslave instead of to kill 56
Instances of kindness 56–57
Manumission 57
Act of individual owners 57
Law of 1543 to end slavery in Spanish America 57
Law not successful 58
Missions and “presidios” 59–61
Life of Indians was practical slavery 61
CHAPTER III
Enslavement by the French
Legality 63–65
Never authorized by law in early colonial period 63
Home government not interested 63
Indirect royal action in eighteenth century 63
Authorized by colonial authorities 63
Action of Company of the Indies, 1720 64
Recognition by Governor-General Hocquart, 1736 64
Action of royal council, 1745 64
Public opinion 65
Not concerned with the subject 65
Knowledge of slavery vague 65
Countenanced slavery as an institution 65
No leader like Las Casas to create sentiment against slavery 65
Attitude of the missionaries 65–67
Processes of enslavement 67
War 67–73
Natchez War 67–68
Minor wars 69
With the Fox Indians 69
With the Chickasaw 69
Urging allies to war and taking captives 69–70
Requiring conquered tribes to go to war and take captives 70–71
Kidnapping 71–73
Trade 73–79
Indian slaves an object of trade 74
Part played by “coureurs de bois” 75–77
Attempt to check action of “coureurs de bois” 77
Opposition to it not strong 78
Attitude of Jesuits 78–79
Gifts: made to the explorers 79–81
Birth: throughout history children of slaves generally regarded as slaves 82
Employment of slaves 82–86
Among the explorers 82
Guides 82
Interpreters 82
Among the colonists 83–86
Interpreters 83
Domestic servants 83
Mistresses 83
Agricultural laborers 83–84
Laborers on fortifications 84
Menial camp laborers 84
Objects of bribe to win friendship of tribes 84–86
Recognition as property 86
Tax law of 1728 86
Treatment of slaves 86–90
Slavery was of mild nature 86
Social distinction between slave and owner was less marked than in case of English and Indian slaves 87
Instance of “coureurs de bois” 87
Religious training 87–88
Relation to ceremonies and sacraments of the Church 88–90
Extent of Indian slavery 90–94
In Louisiana 90–91
In Natchitoches 91
In north Mississippi Valley 92
In Detroit 92–93
Manumission 93–95
Verbal manumission 94
Law of 1735 required manumission by notarial deed 94
Law of 1721 freed children of slave mothers and free fathers 95
Causes of end of Indian slavery 96–102
Indians not adapted to slavery 96
Decrease in number of Indians 96
Removal of tribes from neighborhood of whites 96
Law of 1693 forbade trade in Indians 96
Law of 1736 repeated the order 97
General unsatisfactoriness of the institution 97–99
Growth of indenture system 99
Growth of negro slavery 100–102
PART II
THE INSTITUTION AS PRACTICED BY THE ENGLISH
CHAPTER IV
The Number of Indian Slaves
Exact number in any colony unknown 105
Statistics rare or lacking altogether 105
Comparative numbers in different colonies 105–117
Largest number in South 105–108
Carolinas possessed most 106
Carolinas exported many 106
Fewer Indian slaves than negroes 108
Number in Georgia very small 108
The same true of Virginia 108
New England possessed many 109–112
Massachusetts enslaved captives taken in war 109–110
The Pequot War 109
King Philip’s War 109
Slaves in various towns 109
Rhode Island possessed some 110
Connecticut and New Haven had but few 110–111
New Hampshire had very few 111
The middle group of colonies had a smaller number than New England 112
New York had more than other colonies 112
None taken in war 113
Some imported from the Carolinas and the Spanish Islands 114
Pennsylvania had few 115
Some imported 115
New Jersey had very few 116
Maryland probably possessed the smallest number 117
CHAPTER V
Processes of Enslavement: Warfare
Indian wars generally confined to South 118
Wars in Virginia 119
War with Opechancanough 119
Bacon’s rebellion 119
Wars in Carolina 119–122
War with the Kussoe 119
Expeditions against Spanish Indians after 1701 119–121
In 1702 119
In 1704 120
In 1708 120
In 1727 121
Tuscarora War 121–122
Barnwell’s expedition 122
Moore’s expedition 122
Wars in New England 122–126
Pequot War 123
The Mistick Fight 123
The Swamp Fight 123
Captives retained in colonies 123–124
Captives exported 124
King Philip’s War 124–130
Captives exported 125
By Massachusetts 126
Captives retained in colonies 127
Wives and children of captives enslaved 127
Children of Indians who surrendered enslaved for short period 128
Rhode Island, New Hampshire and Connecticut transported no captives 128
Rhode Island retained captives in colony 129
Captives were involuntary indentured servants rather than slaves 130
Connecticut enslaved captives 130
Colonial action regarding enslavement of Indians 130–152
Virginia 130
Action of 1668 131
Action during and after Bacon’s rebellion 131–132
Maryland 132–133
Intention in 1652 132
North Carolina 133–134
Action during Tuscarora War 133
South Carolina 134–137
Action during war with the Kussoe 134
Action during war with the Stono 134
Action during wars of early eighteenth century 135
Assembly provided committee to dispose of captives 135
Act of 1703 gave anyone a right to purchase slaves 135
Acts of 1707 and 1708 gave commanding officers of expeditions the right to purchase slaves 136
Act of 1715 provided that public receiver should dispose of captives 136
Action during war with the Cherokee 136
New England 137–152
Prior to King Philip’s War 137–138
Disposal of captives by general court: Massachusetts 137
Disposal of captives by council of war: Plymouth 137
Act of United Colonies of New England 138
Articles of Confederation, 1643 138
Action in 1645 138
During King Philip’s War 138–152
Captives sold outright to obtain money for treasury 138–139
Captives sold to pay debts to individuals 139–140
Captives granted directly to captors 141
Military commanders authorized to sell captives 142
Attitude toward Praying Indians 143
Colonial governments realized danger of retaining enslaved captives in colonies 144
Massachusetts act of 1676 144
Massachusetts act of 1677 145
Plymouth act of 1678 146
Government action in capture and sale of Indians not always above suspicion 146
Plymouth act of 1646 146
Seizure and sale of Dartmouth Indians 146–147
Event at Cocheco 147
Disposal of Indians after the war 148
Massachusetts 149
Connecticut 149–150
Rhode Island 150–152
CHAPTER VI
Processes of Enslavement: Kidnapping
Action of Cabot, Frobisher, Weymouth, Harlow, Hunt 154–159
Evidence of kidnapping in southern colonies meagre 159
Event of 1685 at Cape Fear, North Carolina 159–160
Action of Laughton, 1676 160–161
Kidnapping in Pennsylvania 162
Kidnapped Indians in New York: Spanish Indians 162–163
Kidnapped Spanish Indians in other colonies 164
Legislative action against kidnapping 165–167
Nature of legislation 165
Purpose of legislation 165
Acts of
Virginia, 1657 166
Maryland, 1672, 1692, 1705 166
Massachusetts, 1641 166
New Jersey, 1675 167
New Hampshire, 1679 167
CHAPTER VII
Processes of Enslavement: Trade
Purchase of Indians from tribes closely connected with fur trade 168
Work of the “coureurs de bois” 168
Captives obtained by South Carolina traders from the Westo, Savannah and other tribes 169–171
French warn Indians against purpose of English 171
Action of English west of Mississippi river 172
Action of English and French among Chickasaw and Choctaw 172
Two-fold policy of proprietors of Carolina 173–175
Sanctioned enslavement of Indians for their own benefit 174
Opposed enslavement of Indians by colonial officials 174
Directions to grand council 175
Appointment of commission to prevent trade in Indians 175
Directions to governors 175
Inquiries from council and individuals 176
Declare traders’ reasons for traffic in Indians unsound 177
Matter of traffic in Indians given to parliament 178
Attitude of Governor John Archdale 178
Action of Governor James Moore 179
South Carolina assembly deals with trade in Indians, 1707 180
Appointed board of commissioners 180
Duties of board 180
Oath of members 180
Directions to traders 181–182
Purpose of assembly 182
Result of action of assembly 183
Attempts by board to check traffic in Indians 183
Memorial of governor, 1720 184
Failure of authorities to enforce decrees 184–185
Trade in Indians in Virginia 185–187
Traffic begun early 185
Attitude of assembly 185–186
Number of slaves obtained by trade never so extensive as in Carolina 187
Trade in Indians in New England 187
No direct traffic in slaves with tribes 187
Obtained from other colonies 187
Colonial legislation forbidding traffic in Indian slaves 188–195
Massachusetts 188
New Haven 189
Connecticut 189–190
Rhode Island 191–192
New Hampshire 192–193
New York 193
Pennsylvania 193–195
CHAPTER VIII
Other Processes of Enslavement
Abuse of indenture or apprenticeship 196–201
Indians indentured to whites by their tribe 196
Indians sold to whites by their families 196
Indians offered as security for loans 196
Indians sell themselves to whites for protection 196
Whites enslave such Indians by refusing to give them up 196–201
Instance in North Carolina, 1660 197
Cause of Tuscarora War 197
Virginia legislation shows custom followed there 197–198
Massachusetts legislation aiming to prevent such action 198–199
Rhode Island legislation to prevent abuse of apprenticeship 199–200
Abuses in New York 200–201
Decree of Governor Clinton to free Indians wrongly enslaved 200
Custom still in existence at late date, 1755 201
Punishment for violation of law and order 201–207
Enslavement as punishment general throughout colonies 201
Enslavement decreed as punishment in two ways 201
By law specifying enslavement as punishment for certain crimes 201
By a court decreeing enslavement as punishment for crimes committed 201
Carolina court decrees illustrating sentences for crimes committed 201–202
Virginia legislation illustrating specified punishment for specified crimes 202
Massachusetts legislation 203
Massachusetts court decrees 203
Plymouth court decrees 203–205
Rhode Island legislation 205
Rhode Island court decisions 205–206
Connecticut legislation 206
Connecticut court action 206
Action of the United Colonies 206–207
Birth 207–210
In law children of slave mothers generally considered slaves 207
Colonial laws imposing status of slavery on children of slave mothers 207–209
South Carolina 207–208
Virginia 208
Maryland act of 1663 an exception 208
Maryland act of 1692 following general custom in other colonies 209
New York 209
Colonies that did not pass laws regarding the matter followed general custom 209
Massachusetts 209
Connecticut 209
Cases in colonial courts recognizing status of slavery by birth 210
CHAPTER IX
Property Relations
Indians in servitude at first held in status servitude 211
Status servitude followed by status slavery 211
Status servitude and status slavery existing together 211
Indian slavery first recognized in customary law 212
Incidents of the change 212–213
Indian slavery recognized in statute law 213–215
Instance of South Carolina 213
Colonial acts from the standpoint of English law 214
Had no legal sanction 214
Based on law of nations 214
England indifferent to such acts 214–215
Acts therefore legal because not declared illegal 215
Incidents of status servitude continued into status slavery 215–241
Conception of property right 215–241
Indian slaves bought and sold 216
Newspaper advertisements of Indian slaves for sale 216
Indian slaves disposed of by will 216
Indian slaves in inventories 217
Tendency of Indian slaves to run away 217–218
Newspaper advertisements for runaway Indian slaves 218–219
Fugitive slave laws 220–221
Persons forbidden to aid runaways 220
Punishment for rendering such aids 221
Inducements to free Indians to return runaways 221
Intercolonial agreements concerning return of runaways 222–224
Articles of federation of the United Colonies of New England 222
Treaty of United Colonies of New England and New Netherland 223
Incident of New York and Pennsylvania 224
Incident of North Carolina and Virginia 225
Massachusetts rewards master for Indian slave taken from him 225
Courts settle disputes regarding ownership of Indian slaves 225
Taxation of Indian slaves 226
South Carolina acts 226–227
North Carolina acts 227
Virginia acts 227–230
Massachusetts acts 230–232
New York acts 232
Acts of the town of Rye, New York 232–233
Import duties on Indian slaves 233–240
Protective duties 234–237
South Carolina acts 234
Virginia acts 235
Rhode Island act 235
New Hampshire act 236
Pennsylvania act 236
New Jersey acts 236–237
Duties for revenue 237–240
New York acts 238–240
Export duties on Indian slaves 240–241
South Carolina act 240–241
CHAPTER X
Methods of Employment
Uses of Indian slaves similar throughout colonies 242–249
Hunters 242
Fishermen 242
Guides 242
Domestic servants 243–244
Agricultural laborers 244
Craftsmen 245
Rented like other chattels 245
Laborers in camp and field 245–247
Soldiers 247–249
CHAPTER XI
Treatment
Treatment the same as that accorded negroes 250
Harsh treatment not general 250
Clothing 251–252
Newspaper evidence 251–252
Marriage of whites with Indian slaves 252
Forbidden by the following colonies:
North Carolina, 1715 253
Maryland, 1692 253
Massachusetts, 1692 253
Regulation of Indian slaves 253–254
Each colony settled this matter for itself 253
Indian slaves included by implication in all colonial acts relating to slaves, if not specified 253
Right to give evidence in court 254–255
Could not testify in trial of a white person 254
South Carolina 254
North Carolina 254
Virginia 255
Maryland 255
New York 255
Protection of slaves’ and owners’ rights in court 255–259
The right to life 255
New Hampshire act of 1708 255
Trial of slaves similar to that of freemen 255
Chance of slave obtaining his rights in court 256
Virginia, 1692, provided special courts for trial of slaves 256
Massachusetts provision of 1647 256–257
New Jersey act of 1713 257