Сноска 572: Это частичное обновление министерства, известное в Италии как римпасто (rimpasto), облегчалось — и до сих пор облегчается — отсутствием политической солидарности у среднего министерства. (Назад)
Сноска 573: Эта коалиционная политика — так называемый трасформизмо (transformismo) — возникла не при Депретисе. Еще в 1873 году часть правых под руководством Мингетти, объединившись с левыми, свергла кабинет Ланзы — Селлы; а в 1876 году сам Мингетти пал жертвой аналогичного перехода депутатов-консерваторов в другую оппозицию. (Назад)
Сноска 574: Кардон (Cardon), «О правлении в конституционной монархии» (Del governo nella monarchia costituzionale), 125. (Назад)
Сноска 575: Обзор партийных условий за последнее десятилетие см. в работе А. Лабриоли (A. Labrioli), «История десяти лет, 1899–1909» (Storia di dieci anni, 1899–1909; Милан, 1910). (Назад)
Сноска 576: Эта идея выражена фразой: «католики-депутаты — да, депутаты-католики — нет» (cattolici deputati, si, deputati cattolici, no). (Назад)
Сноска 577: Евфразио (Eufrasio), «Нон экспедито» (Il Non Expedit) в «Нуова антология» (Nuova Antologia) за 1 сентября 1904 года. (Назад)
Сноска 578: Политические партии Италии кратко описаны у Лоуэлл (Lowell) в «Правительствах и партиях» (Governments and Parties, т. II, гл. 4) и более подробно у Кинга и Окея в «Италии сегодня» (главы 1–3). К числу важных специальных работ по этому вопросу относятся: М. Мингетти (M. Minghetti), «Политические партии и их вмешательство в правосудие и управление» (I partiti politici e la ingerenza loro nella giustizia e nell' amministrazione, 2-е изд., Болонья, 1881); П. Пенчолелли (P. Penciolelli), «Парламентское правление и борьба партий в Италии» (Le gouvernement parlementaire et la lutte des partis en Italie; Париж, 1911) и С. Сигеле (S. Sighele), «Национализм и политические партии» (Il nazionalismo e i partiti politici; Милан, 1911). Ценность представляют работы Р. Бонфадини (R. Bonfadini), «Парламентские партии» (I partiti parlamentari) в «Нуова антология» за 15 февраля 1894 года и А. Торрезина (A. Torresin), «Статистика всеобщих политических выборов» (Statistica delle elezioni generali politiche) в издании «Ла риформа социале» (La Riforma Sociale) за 15 августа 1900 года. Полезной биографией является труд У. Дж. Стиллмана (W. J. Stillman), «Франческо Криспи» (Francesco Crispi; Лондон, 1899), а бесценным хранилищем информации служит издание М. Причард-Агнетти (M. Prichard-Agnetti, пер.), «Мемуары Франческо Криспи» (The Memoirs of Francesco Crispi, 2 тома; Нью-Йорк, 1912). По партиям крайне левых с пользой можно обратиться к следующим работам: Ф. С. Нитти (F. S. Nitti), «Радикальная партия» (Il partito radicale; Турин и Рим, 1907); П. Виллари (P. Villari), «Труды по социальному вопросу в Италии» (Scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia; Флоренция, 1902); Р. Бонги (R. Bonghi), «Последние парламентские события» (Gli ultimi fatti parlamentari) в «Нуова антология» за 1 января 1895 года; Дж. Алессио (G. Alessio), «Партии и программы» (Partiti e programmi), там же, 16 октября 1900 года; Ж. Луи-Жаре (G. Louis-Jaray), «Муниципальный социализм в Италии» (Le socialisme municipal en Italie) в «Анналах политических наук» (Annales des Sciences Politiques) за май 1904 года; Р. Мейнадье (R. Meynadier), «Партии крайне левых и монархия в Италии» (Les partis d'extrême gauche et la monarchie en Italie) в «Дипломатических и колониальных вопросах» (Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales) за 1 апреля 1908 года; Ф. Магри (F. Magri), «Реформисты и революционеры в итальянской социалистической партии» (Riformisti e rivoluzionari nel partito socialista italiano) в «Рассенья нацьонале» (Rassegna Nazionale) за 16 ноября 1906 года и 1 апреля 1907 года; Р. Сольди (R. Soldi), «Различные течения в итальянской социалистической партии» (Le varie correnti nel partito socialista italiano) в «Журнале экономистов» (Giornale degli Economisti) за июнь 1903 года. О недавних итальянских выборах см.: Ж. Жидель (G. Gidel), «Всеобщие итальянские выборы в ноябре 1904 года» (Les élections générales italiennes de novembre 1904) в «Анналах политических наук» за январь 1905 года; П. Кентен-Бошар (P. Quentin-Bauchart), «Итальянские выборы в марте 1909 года» (Les élections italiennes de mars 1909), там же, за июль 1909 года. (Назад)
Сноска 579: English version of the Perpetual League of 1291 see Vincent, Government in Switzerland, 285-288. The best account in English of the origins of the Confederation is contained in W. D. McCrackan, The Rise of the Swiss Republic (2d ed., New York, 1901). Important are A. Rilliet, Les origines de la confédération suisse (Geneva, 1868); P. Vauchier, Les commencements de la confédération suisse (Lausanne, 1891); W. Oechsli, Die Anfange der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Zürich, 1891). Of the last-mentioned excellent work there is a French translation, under the title Les origines de la confédération suisse (Bern, 1891). The origins of the Swiss Confederation were described in a scientific manner for the first time in the works of J. E. Kopp: Urkunden zur Geschichte der eidgenössischen Bünde (Leipzig and Berlin, 1835), and Geschichte der eidgenössischen Bünde (Leipzig and Berlin, 1845-1852). The texts of all of the Swiss alliances to 1513 are printed in J. von Ah, Die Bundesbriefe der alten Eidgenossen (Einsiedeln, 1891). (Back)
Сноска 580: Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332; Zürich in 1351; Glarus and Zug in 1352; Bern in 1353; Freiburg and Solothurn in 1481; Basel and Schaffhausen in 1501; and Appenzell in 1513. "Swiss history is largely the history of the drawing together of bits of each of the Imperial kingdoms (Germany, Italy, and Burgundy) for common defense against a common foe—the Hapsburgs; and, when this family have secured to themselves the permanent possession of the Empire, the Swiss league little by little wins its independence of the Empire, practically in 1499, formally in 1648. Originally a member of the Empire, the Confederation becomes first an ally, then merely a friend." Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed., XXVI., 246. (Back)
Сноска 581: To these districts, however, the name canton was applied; and, indeed, this was the first occasion upon which the name was employed officially in Switzerland. (Back)
Сноска 582: McCrackan, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 295-312; A. von Tillier, Geschichte der helvetischen Republik, 3 vols. (Bern, 1843); Muret, L'Invasion de la Suisse en 1798 (Lausanne, 1881-1884); L. Marsauche, La confédération helvétique (Neuchâtel, 1890). (Back)
Сноска 583: It is in this instrument that the Confederation was for the first time designated officially as "Switzerland." (Back)
Сноска 584: Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 4 (bibliography, pp. 805-807). The best general work on the period 1798-1813 is W. Oechsli, Geschichte der Schweiz im XIX. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1903), I. (Back)
Сноска 585: This statement needs to be qualified by the observation that the half-canton Nidwalden approved the constitution August 30, and only when compelled by force to do so. (Back)
Сноска 586: Three of the cantons—Unterwalden, Basel, and Appenzell—were divided into half-cantons, each with a government of its own; but each possessed only half a vote in the Diet. (Back)
Сноска 587: B. Van Muyden, La suisse sous le pacte de 1815, 2 vols. (Lausanne and Paris, 1890-1892); A. von Tillier, Geschichte der Eidgenossenschaft während der sogen. Restaurationsepoche, 1814-1830, 3 vols. (Bern and Zürich, 1848-1850); ibid., Geschichte der Eidgenossenschaft während der Zeit des sogeheissenen Fortschritts, 1830-1846, 3 vols. (Bern, 1854-1855). (Back)
Сноска 588: McCracken, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 325-330. (Back)
Сноска 589: Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Freiburg, and the Valais. (Back)
Сноска 590: A. Stern, Zur Geschichte des Sonderbundes, in Historische Zeitschrift, 1879; W. B. Duffield, The War of the Sonderbund, in English Historical Review, Oct., 1895; and P. Matter, Le Sonderbund, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Jan. 15, 1896. (Back)
Сноска 591: For the methods of constitutional amendment see p. 431. (Back)
Сноска 592: W. Oechsli, in Cambridge Modern History, XI., 234. A brief survey of the constitutional history of Switzerland from 1848 to 1874 is contained in Chap. 8 of the volume mentioned (bibliography, pp. 914-918). Two excellent works are C. Hilty, Les constitutions fédérales de la confédération suisse; exposé historique (Neuchâtel, 1891), and T. Curti, Geschichte der Schweiz im XIX. Jahrhundert (Neuchâtel, 1902). A fairly satisfactory book is L. Hug and R. Stead, Switzerland (New York, 1889). The text of the constitution may be found in S. Kaiser and J. Strickler, Geschichte und Texte der Bundesverfassungen der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft von der helvetischen Staatsumwälzung bis zur Gegenwart (Bern, 1901), and in Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 405-431. English versions are printed in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 257-290; McCrackan, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 373-403; Vincent, Government in Switzerland, 289-332; and Old South Leaflets, General Series, No. 18. The texts of all federal constitutions after 1798 are included in the work of Kaiser and Strickler. A good collection of recent documents is P. Wolf, Die schweizerische Bundesgesetzgebung (2d ed., Basel, 1905-1908). The principal treatises on the Swiss constitutional system are J. J. Blumer, Handbuch des schweizerischen Bundesstaatsrechtes (2d ed., Schaffhausen, 1877-1887); J. Schollenberger, Bundesverfassung der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Berlin, 1905); ibid., Das Bundesstaatsrecht der Schweiz Geschichte und System (Berlin, 1902); and W. Burckhardt, Kommentar der Schweiz; Bundesverfassung vom 29 Mai 1874 (Bern, 1905). Two excellent briefer treatises are N. Droz, Instruction civique (Lausanne, 1884) and A. von Orelli, Das Staatsrecht der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Freiburg, 1885), in Marquardsen's Handbuch. The best treatise in English upon the Swiss governmental system is J. M. Vincent, Government in Switzerland (New York, 1900). Older works include B. Moses, The Federal Government of Switzerland (Oakland, 1889); F. Adams and C. Cunningham, The Swiss Confederation (London, 1889); and B. Winchester, The Swiss Republic (Philadelphia, 1891). Mention should be made of A. B. Hart, Introduction to the Study of Federal Government (Boston, 1891); also of an exposition of Swiss federalism in Dicey, Law of the Constitution, 7th ed., 517-529. (Back)
Сноска 593: Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 257. (Back)
Сноска 594: The total area of the Confederation is approximately 16,000 square miles; the total population, according to the census of December 1, 1910, is 3,741,971. (Back)
Сноска 595: Art. 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 257. (Back)
Сноска 596: In the form in which it now exists the Swiss constitution is one of the most comprehensive instruments of the kind in existence. Aside from various temporary provisions, it contains, in all, 123 articles, some of considerable length. As is true of the German constitution, there is in it much that ordinarily has no place in the fundamental law of a nation. A curious illustration is afforded by an amendment of 1893 to the effect that "the killing of animals without benumbing before the drawing of blood is forbidden; this provision applies to every method of slaughter and to every species of animals." Art. 25. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263. The adoption of this amendment was an expression of antisemitic prejudice. (Back)
Сноска 597: Arts. 5 and 6. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 258. (Back)
Сноска 598: Art. 8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 258. (Back)
Сноска 599: Arts. 15-23. Ibid., II., 260-262. (Back)
Сноска 600: McCrackan, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 354-363; Payen, La neutralisation de la Suisse, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Oct. 15, 1892. (Back)
Сноска 601: Art. 27. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263. (Back)
Сноска 602: Art. 49. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 271-272. (Back)
Сноска 603: "The customs system shall be within the control of the Confederation. The Confederation may levy export and import duties." Art. 28. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263. The constitution stipulates further that imports of materials essential for the manufactures and agriculture of the country, and of necessaries of life in general, shall be taxed as low as possible; also that export taxes shall be kept at a minimum. Art. 42 prescribes that the expenditures of the Confederation shall be met from the income from federal property, the proceeds of the postal and telegraph services, the proceeds of the powder monopoly, half of the gross receipts from the tax on military exemptions levied by the cantons, the proceeds of the federal customs, and, finally, in case of necessity, contributions levied upon the cantons in proportion to their wealth and taxable resources. Dodd, II., 269. (Back)
Сноска 604: Art. 27. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263. (Back)
Сноска 605: A. Souriac, L'évolution de la juridiction fédérale en Suisse (Paris, 1909). (Back)
Сноска 606: On the governments of the cantons the principal general works are J. Schollenberger, Grundriss der Staats-und Verwaltungsrechts der schweizerischen Kantone, 3 vols. (Zürich, 1898-1900), and J. Dubs, Das öffentliche Recht der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Zürich, 1877-1878), I. Brief accounts will be found in Vincent, the Government of Switzerland, Chaps. 1-12. (Back)
Сноска 607: The area of Zug is 92 square miles; of Glarus, 267; of the Unterwaldens, 295; of the Appenzells, 162. The longest dimension of any one of these cantons is but thirty miles, and the distance to be traversed by the citizen who wishes to attend the Landesgemeinde of his canton rarely exceeds ten miles. It was once the fashion to represent the Swiss Landesgemeinde as a direct survival of the primitive Germanic popular assembly. For the classic statement of this view see Freeman, Growth of the English Constitution, Chap. 1. There is, however, every reason to believe that between the two institutions there is no historical connection. (Back)
Сноска 608: H. D. Lloyd, A Sovereign People (New York, 1907), Chap. 4. (Back)
Сноска 609: For an excellent account of the introduction of proportional representation in the canton of Ticino see J. Galland, La démocratie tessinoise et la représentation proportionnelle (Grenoble, 1909). The canton in which the principle has been adopted most recently is St. Gall. In 1893, 1901, and 1906 it was there rejected by the people, but at the referendum of February, 1912, it was approved, and in the following November the cantonal legislature formally adopted it. For a brief exposition of the workings of the system see Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 4. An important study of the subject is E. Klöti, Die Proportionalwahl in der Schweiz; Geschichte, Darstellung und Kritik (Bern, 1901). On the proposed introduction of proportional representation in the federal government see p. 433. (Back)
Сноска 610: Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 243. (Back)
Сноска 611: It will be observed, of course, that in the cantons which maintain a Landesgemeinde there is no occasion for the employment of the referendum upon either constitutional or legislative questions. The people there act directly and necessarily upon every important proposition. (Back)
Сноска 612: Important treatises on the Swiss referendum are T. Curti, Geschichte der schweizerischen Volksgesetzgebung (Zürich, 1885); ibid., Die Volksabstimmung in der schweizerischen Gesetzgebung (Zürich, 1886). A French version of the former work, by J. Ronjat, has appeared under the title Le référendum: histoire de la législation populaire en Suisse (Paris, 1905). Of large value is Curti, Die Resultate des schweizerischen Referendums (2d ed., Bern, 1911). An older account is J. A. Herzog, Das Referendum in der Schweiz (Berlin, 1885). An excellent book is S. Duploige, Le référendum en Suisse (Brussels, 1892), of which there is an English translation, by C. P. Trevelyan, under the title The Referendum in Switzerland (London, 1898). Of value also are Stüssi, Referendum und Initiative in den Schweizerkantonen (Zürich, 1894), and J. Signorel, Étude de législation comparée sur le référendum législatif (Paris, 1896). Mention may be made of J. Delpech, Quelques observations à propos du référendum et des Landesgemeinde suisse, in Revue du Droit Public, April-June, 1906. (Back)
Сноска 613: A. Keller, Das Volksinitiativrecht nach den schweizerischen Kantonsverfassungen (Zürich, 1889). (Back)
Сноска 614: In the Landesgemeinde cantons the Landammann is elected by the primary assembly. (Back)
Сноска 615: Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 10; Adams and Cunningham, The Swiss Confederation, Chap. 8; Lloyd, A Sovereign People, Chap. 3. (Back)
Сноска 616: Art. 95. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 281. (Back)
Сноска 617: No longer, as prior to 1888, necessarily that of foreign affairs. (Back)
Сноска 618: Art. 103. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 284. For a synopsis of the law of July 8, 1887, whereby an apportionment of functions was made among the various departments see Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 239-246. (Back)
Сноска 619: Members of the Council are re-elected, almost as a matter of course, as long as they are willing to serve. Between 1848 and 1893 the average period of service exceeded ten years. Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 203. (Back)
Сноска 620: The resignation, in 1891, of M. Welti, a member of the Council since 1867, by reason of the fact that the people rejected his project for the governmental purchase of railway shares occasioned general consternation. (Back)
Сноска 621: For interesting observations upon the advantages and disadvantages of the Swiss system see Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 204-208. See also Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 16; Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 188-203. (Back)
Сноска 622: Art. 102. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 282-284; Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 218-225. (Back)