[173] United States v. Schooner Peggy, 1 Cr. 103 (1801).
[174] Foster v. Neilson, 2 Pet. 253 (1829).
[175] United States v. Percheman, 7 Pet. 51 (1833).
[176] Willoughby, On the Constitution, I, (2d ed.), 555.
[177] 288 U.S. 102 (1933).
[178] Ibid. 107-122.
[179] 124 U.S. 190 (1888).
[180] It is arguable that the maximum leget posteriores is not the most eligible rule for determining conflicts between "laws of the United States * * * made in pursuance thereof" (i.e. of the Constitution) and "treaties made * * * under the authority of the United States". It may be that the former, being mentioned immediately after "this Constitution" and before "treaties," are entitled always to prevail over the latter, just as both acts of Congress and treaties yield to the Constitution.
[181] 1 Stat. 578.
[182] 4 Dall. 37 (1800).
[183] Crandall, Treaties (2d ed.), 458; See Messages and Papers of the Presidents, IV, 2245; and Benton, 15 Abridgment of the Debates of Congress, 478. Mangum of North Carolina denied that Congress could authorize the President to give notice: "He entertained not a particle of doubt that the question never could have been thrown upon Congress unless as a war or quasi war measure. * * * Congress had no power of making or breaking a treaty." He owned, however, that he might appear singular in his view of the matter. Ibid. 472.
[184] Crandall, 458-462; Wright, The Control of American Foreign Relations, 258.
[185] 38 Stat. 1164.
[186] Crandall, 460.
[187] See Jesse S. Reeves, The Jones Act and the Denunciation of Treaties, 15 American Journal of International Law (January, 1921) 33-38. Among other precedents which call into question the exclusive significance of the legislative role in the termination of treaties as international conventions is one mentioned by Mr. Taft: "In my administration the lower house passed a resolution directing the abrogation of the Russian Treaty of 1832, couched in terms which would have been most offensive to Russia, and it did this by a vote so nearly unanimous as to indicate that in the Senate, too, the same resolution would pass. It would have strained our relations with Russia in a way that seemed unwise. The treaty was an old one, and its construction had been constantly the subject of controversy between the two countries, and therefore, to obviate what I felt would produce unnecessary trouble in our foreign relations, I indicated to the Russian ambassador the situation, and advised him that I deemed it wise to abrogate the treaty, which, as President, I had the right to do by due notice couched in a friendly and courteous tone and accompanied by an invitation to begin negotiations for a new treaty. Having done this, I notified the Senate of the fact, and this enabled the wiser heads of the Senate to substitute for the house resolution a resolution approving my action, and in this way the passage of the dangerous resolution was avoided." The resolution in question, it should be added, was a joint resolution, and purported to ratify the President's action. The President himself had asked only for ratification and approval of his course by the Senate. William Howard Taft, The Presidency (New York, 1916), 112-114. Two other precedents bearing on outright abrogation of treaties are the following. The question whether to regard the extradition article of the Treaty of 1842 with Great Britain as void on account of certain acts of the British Government was laid before Congress by President Grant in a special message dated June 20, 1876, in the following terms: "It is for the wisdom of Congress to determine whether the article of the treaty relating to extradition is to be any longer regarded as obligatory on the Government of the United States or as forming part of the supreme law of the land. Should the attitude of the British Government remain unchanged, I shall not, without an expression of the wish of Congress that I should do so, take any action either in making or granting requisitions for the surrender of fugitive criminals under the treaty of 1842." Messages and Papers of the Presidents, IX, 4324, 4327. Three years later Congress passed a resolution requiring the President to abrogate articles V and VI of the Treaty of 1868 with China. President Hayes vetoed it, partly on the ground that "the power of modifying an existing treaty, whether by adding or striking out provisions, is a part of the treaty-making power under the Constitution. * * *" At the same time, he also wrote: "The authority of Congress to terminate a treaty with a foreign power by expressing the will of the nation no longer to adhere to it is as free from controversy under our Constitution as is the further proposition that the power of making new treaties or modifying existing treaties is not lodged by the Constitution in Congress, but in the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, as shown by the concurrence of two-thirds of that body." Ibid. 4470-4471. The veto would seem to have been based on a quibble.
[188] 229 U.S. 447 (1913).
[189] Ibid. 473-476.
[190] Clark v. Allen, 331 U.S. 503 (1947).
[191] Charlton v. Kelly, 229 U.S. 447 (1913).
[192] Fed. Cas. No. 13,799 (1855).
[193] 2 Pet. 253, 309 (1829).
[194] Acts of March 2, 1829 and of February 24, 1855; 4 Stat. 359 and 10 Stat. 614.
[195] In re Ross, 140 U.S. 453 (1891), where the treaty provisions involved are given. The supplementary legislation was later reenacted as Rev. Stat. §§ 4083-4091.
[196] 18 U.S.C.A. §§ 3181-3195.
[197] Baldwin v. Franks, 120 U.S. 678, 683 (1887).
[198] Neely v. Henkel, 180 U.S. 109, 121 (1901). A different theory is offered by Justice Story in his opinion for the Court in Prigg v. Pennsylvania, 16 Pet. 539 (1842), in the following words: "Treaties made between the United States and foreign powers, often contain special provisions, which do not execute themselves, but require the interposition of Congress to carry them into effect, and Congress has constantly, in such cases, legislated on the subject; yet, although the power is given to the executive, with the consent of the senate, to make treaties, the power is nowhere in positive terms conferred upon Congress to make laws to carry the stipulations of treaties into effect. It has been supposed to result from the duty of the national government to fulfil all the obligations of treaties." Ibid. 619. Story was here in quest of arguments to prove that Congress had power to enact a fugitive slave law, which he based on its power "to carry into effect rights expressly given and duties expressly enjoined" by the Constitution. Ibid. 618-619. But the treaty-making power is neither a right nor a duty, but one of the powers "vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States." Article I, section 8, clause 18.
[199] Geofroy v. Riggs, 133 U.S. 258 (1890). See also Fort Leavenworth Railroad Co. v. Lowe, 114 U.S. 525, 541 (1885), which is cited in the Field opinion in support of the idea that no cession of any portion of a State's territory could be effected without the State's consent. The statement is the purest obiter.
[200] Ibid. 267.
[201] The majority of the cases, as was pointed out earlier, dealt with the competence of the treaty-making power to grant aliens the right to inherit real property contrary to State Law. The nearest the Court ever came to lending countenance to the State Rights argument in this connection was in Frederickson v. Louisiana, 23 How. 445 (1860). See ibid. 448.
[202] 252 U.S. 416 (1920).
[203] Ibid. 433-434.
[204] Ibid. 435.
[205] 299 U.S. 304 (1936).
[206] Ibid. 318. "The treaty-making power vested in our government extends to all proper subjects of negotiation with foreign governments. It can, equally with any of the former or present governments of Europe, make treaties providing for the exercise of judicial authority in other countries by its officers appointed to reside therein." In re Ross, 140 U.S. 453, 463 (1891).
[207] Jefferson excepted out of the treaty-making power the delegated powers of Congress, though just what he meant by this exception is uncertain. He may have meant that no international agreement could be constitutionally entered into by the United States within the sphere of such powers, or only that treaty-provisions dealing with matters which are also subject to the legislative power of Congress must, in order to become law of the land, receive the assent of Congress. The latter interpretation, however, does not state a limitation on the power of making treaties in the sense of international conventions, but rather a necessary procedure before certain conventions are cognizable by the courts in the enforcement of rights under them, while the former interpretation has been contradicted in practice from the outset. Various other limitations to the treaty-making power have been suggested from time to time. Thus, it has been contended that the territory of a State of the Union could not be ceded without such State's consent, see above ; also, that while foreign territory can be annexed to the United States by the treaty-making power, it could not be incorporated with the United States except with the consent of Congress; also, that while the treaty-making power can consent to the United States being sued for damages in an international tribunal for an alleged incorrect decision of a court of the United States, it could not consent to an appeal being taken from one of its courts to an international tribunal. The first of these alleged limitations may be dismissed as resting on the unallowable idea that the United States is not as to its powers a territorial government, but only the agent of the States. In the words of Chancellor Kent: "The better opinion would seem to be, that such a power of cession of the territory of a State without its consent does reside exclusively in the treaty-making power, under the Constitution of the United States, yet sound discretion would forbid the exercise of it without the consent of the local government who are interested, except in cases of great necessity, in which the consent might be presumed." 1 Comm. 166-167 and note. This seems also to have been substantially the view of Marshall and Story. See Willoughby, On the Constitution, I (2d ed., 1929), 575-576. The second suggested limitation, which was urged at tremendous length by Chief Justice White in his concurring opinion for himself and three other Justices, in Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 310-344 (1901), boils down simply to the question of correct constitutional procedure for the effectuation of a treaty; and much the same may be said of the third alleged limitation. This limitation was first suggested in connection with the Hague Convention of 1907 providing for an International Prize Court as a result of appeal from the prize courts of belligerents. To this arrangement President Taft objected that the treaty-making power could not transfer to a tribunal not known to the Constitution part of the "judicial power of the United States," and upon this view of the matter dispensation was finally granted the United States in a special protocol whereby this nation was allowed, in lieu of granting appeals from its prize courts to the International Court, to be mulcted in damages in the latter for erroneous decisions in the former. It is submitted that President Taft's position was fallacious, for the simple reason that not even the whole American nation is entitled to judge finally of its rights or of those of its citizens under the law which binds all nations and determines their rights; and that, therefore, the whole American nation never had any authority to create a judicial power vested with any such jurisdiction. See Edye v. Robertson (Head Money Cases), 112 U.S. 580, 598 (1884). The law of nations seems of itself to presuppose a tribunal of nations with coextensive jurisdiction. Thus there is no reason why a completely independent nation like the United States may not consent to be bound by the decisions of such a tribunal without any derogation from its rightful sovereignty. And if "the authority of the United States" is the authority of the nation in the field of foreign relations—if the National Government has constitutional powers coextensive with its international responsibilities—we must conclude that such consent can be validly given through the existing treaty-making power. See Favoring Membership of the United States in the Permanent Court of International Justice, H. Rept. 1569, 68th Cong., 2d sess.
[208] 5 Pet. 1 (1831).
[209] 6 Pet. 515 (1832).
[210] Ibid. 558.
[211] Holden v. Joy, 17 Wall. 211, 242 (1872); United States v. 43 Gallons of Whiskey, etc., 93 U.S. 188, 192 (1876); Dick v. United States, 208 U.S. 340, 355-356 (1908).
[212] The New York Indians, 5 Wall. 761 (1867).
[213] The Kansas Indians, 5 Wall. 737, 757 (1867).
[214] United States v. 43 Gallons of Whiskey, etc., 93 U.S. 188, 196 (1876).
[215] The Cherokee Tobacco, 11 Wall. 616 (1871). See also Ward v. Race Horse, 163 U.S. 504, 511 (1896); and Thomas v. Gay, 169 U.S. 264, 270 (1898).
[217] 16 Stat. 544, 566; Rev. Stat § 2079.
[217] Ward v. Race Horse, 163 U.S. 504 (1896).
[218] Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 187 U.S. 553 (1903).
[219] Cherokee Nation v. Southern Kansas R. Co., 135 U.S. 641 (1890).
[220] The Cherokee Tobacco, 11 Wall. 616, 621 (1871).
[221] Choate v. Trapp, 224 U.S. 665, 677-678 (1912); Jones v. Meehan, 175 U.S. 1 (1899).
[222] For an effort to distinguish "treaties," "compacts," "agreements," "conventions," etc., see Chief Justice Taney's opinion in Holmes v. Jennison, 14 Pet. 540, 570-572 (1840). Vattel is Taney's chief reliance.
[223] Story, Comm. § 1403. The President has the power in the absence of legislation by Congress, to control the landing of foreign cables on the shores of the United States, 22 Op. Atty. Gen. 13 and 408 (1898, 1899).
[224] Crandall, Treaties (2d ed.) Chap. VIII. See also McClure, International Executive Agreements (Columbia University Press, 1941), Chaps. I and II.
[225] Crandall, 102; McClure, 49-50.
[226] Crandall, 104-106; McClure, 81-82.
[227] Tucker v. Alexandroff, 183 U.S. 424, 435 (1902).
[228] Ibid. 467. The first of these conventions, signed July 29, 1882, had asserted its constitutionality in very positive terms. "The power to make and enforce such a temporary convention respecting its own territory is a necessary incident to every national government, and adheres where the executive power is vested. Such conventions are not treaties within the meaning of the Constitution, and, as treaties, supreme law of the land, conclusive on the courts, but they are provisional arrangements, rendered necessary by national differences involving the faith of the nation and entitled to the respect of the courts. They are not a casting of the national will into the firm and permanent condition of law, and yet in some sort they are for the occasion an expression of the will of the people through their political organ, touching the matters affected; and to avoid unhappy collision between the political and judicial branches of the government, both which are in theory inseparably all one, such an expression to a reasonable limit should be followed by the courts and not opposed, though extending to the temporary restraint or modification of the operation of existing statutes. Just as here, we think, this particular convention respecting San Juan should be allowed to modify for the time being the operation of the organic act of this Territory [Washington] so far forth as to exclude to the extent demanded by the political branch of the government of the United States, in the interest of peace, all territorial interference for the government of that island." Wright, The Control of American Foreign Relations, 239, quoting Watts v. United States, 1 Wash. Terr., 288, 294 (1870).
[229] Quincy Wright, The Control of American Foreign Relations (New York, 1922), 245.
[230] Crandall, 103-104.
[231] Ibid. 104.
[232] Willoughby, On the Constitution, I, 539.
[233] Wallace McClure, International Executive Agreements (Columbia University Press, 1941), 98.
[234] Tyler Dennett, Roosevelt and the Russo-Japanese War (New York, 1925), 112-114.
[235] McClure, International Executive Agreements, 98-99.
[236] Ibid. 99-100.
[237] Willoughby, On the Constitution, I, 547.
[238] Wallace McClure, International Executive Agreements (Columbia University Press, 1941), 97, 100.
[239] McClure, International Executive Agreements, 141.
[240] 301 U.S. 324 (1937).
[241] Ibid. 330-332.
[242] 315 U.S. 203 (1942).
[243] Ibid. 229-230. Citing The Federalist, No. 64.
[244] Ibid. 230. Citing Guaranty Trust Co. v. United States, 304 U.S. 126, 143 (1938).
[245] Ibid. 230-231. Citing Nielsen v. Johnson, 279 U.S. 47 (1929).
[246] Ibid. 231. Citing Santovincenzo v. Egan, 284 U.S. 30 (1931); United States v. Belmont, 301 U.S. 324 (1937).
[247] Ibid. 233-234. Citing Oetjen v. Central Leather Co., 246 U.S. 297, 304 (1918).
[248] 315 U.S. at 228-234 passim. Председатель Верховного суда Стоун и судья Робертс выразили несогласие, главным образом по вопросу толкования Ликвиновского соглашения, сославшись на дело Guaranty Trust Co. v. United States, примечание 3 выше.
[249] McClure, p. 391.
[250] Ibid. 391-393; United States Department of State Bulletin, September 7, 1940, pp. 199-200.
[251] McClure, 394-403; cf. The Constitution, article IV, section 3, clause 2. Когда президент Джон Адамс подписал акт о передаче недвижимости под дипломатическое представительство королеве Португалии, генеральный прокурор сообщил ему, что только Конгресс правомочен отчуждать государственное имущество. See W.B. Bryan, A History of the National Capitol From Its Foundation Through the Period of the Adoption of the Organic Act, I, 328-329; 1 American State Papers, Misc., 334. See also Chief Justice Hughes, for the Court, in Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley Authority, 297 U.S. 288, 330 (1936).
[252] 4 State Department Bulletin, April 12, 1941, pp. 443-447.
[253] Текст, выдаваемый за подлинный текст этих соглашений, был опубликован в газете New York Times от 11 марта 1947 года. Совместное заявление США, Великобритании и Франции об оказании помощи вооружением странам Ближнего Востока, опубликованное Белым домом 25 мая 1950 года (See A.P. dispatches of that date), несет в себе все признаки исполнительного соглашения. То же самое можно сказать и о следующем коммюнике, выпущенном Североатлантическим советом по окончании его Шестой сессии в Брюсселе 19 декабря 1950 года. «Североатлантический совет, действуя на основании рекомендаций Комитета по обороне, завершил сегодня мероприятия, начатые в сентябре прошлого года, по созданию в Европе объединенных вооруженных сил под централизованным руководством и командованием. Эти вооруженные силы должны состоять из контингентов, выделяемых участвующими правительствами. Совет вчера единогласно решил просить президента Соединенных Штатов предоставить в его распоряжение генерала армии Дуайта Д. Эйзенхауэра для прохождения службы в качестве Верховного главнокомандующего. Получив сегодня утром сообщение от президента Соединенных Штатов о том, что он предоставил в распоряжение генерала Эйзенхауэра, Совет назначил его на эту должность. Он вступит в командование и создаст свой штаб в Европе в начале нового года. Он будет наделен полномочиями обучать национальные подразделения, выделенные в его подчинение, и организовывать их в эффективные объединенные оборонительные силы. Его будет поддерживать международный аппарат сотрудников, сформированный из представителей наций, выделяющих войска в состав вооруженных сил. «Совет, желая упростить структуру Организации Североатлантического договора в целях повышения ее эффективности, поручил заместителям членов Совета предпринять надлежащие шаги. В связи с этим Комитет по обороне, заседавший отдельно 18 декабря, уже принял меры по созданию совета оборонного производства с более широкими полномочиями, чем у Военно-производственного и снабженческого совета, который он заменяет. На новый совет возложена задача расширения и ускорения производства, а также содействия взаимному использованию промышленного потенциала государств-членов. Совет также достиг единогласного соглашения относительно роли, которую Германия могла бы взять на себя в деле общей обороны. Участие Германии укрепило бы оборону Европы, никоим образом не изменяя чисто оборонительный характер Организации Североатлантического договора. Совет предложил правительствам Франции, Соединенного Королевства и Соединенных Штатов изучить этот вопрос совместно с правительством Федеративной Республики Германии. «Принятые решения и планируемые меры имеют своей единственной целью поддержание и укрепление мира. Североатлантические государства полны решимости проводить эту политику до тех пор, пока мир не станет надежным». Пресс-релиз Государственного департамента от 19 декабря 1950 года (№ 1247).