Schleiermacher’s hypothesis includes a preconceived scheme, and a peremptory order of interdependence among the dialogues 318
Assumptions of Schleiermacher respecting the Phædrus inadmissible 319
Neither Schleiermacher, nor any other critic, has as yet produced any tolerable proof for an internal theory of the Platonic dialogues ib.
Munk’s theory is the most ambitious, and the most gratuitous, next to Schleiermacher’s 320
The age assigned to Sokrates in any dialogue is a circumstance of little moment ib.
No intentional sequence or interdependence of the dialogues can be made out 322
Principle of arrangement adopted by Hermann is reasonable — successive changes in Plato’s point of view: but we cannot explain either the order or the causes of these changes ib.
Hermann’s view more tenable than Schleiermacher’s 323
Small number of certainties, or even reasonable presumptions, as to date or order of the dialogues 324
Trilogies indicated by Plato himself 325
Positive dates of all the dialogues — unknown 326
When did Plato begin to compose? Not till after the death of Sokrates ib.
Reasons for this opinion. Labour of the composition — does not consist with youth of the author 327
Reasons founded on the personality of Sokrates, and his relations with Plato 328
Reasons, founded on the early life, character, and position of Plato 330
Plato’s early life — active by necessity, and to some extent ambitious 331
Plato did not retire from political life until after the restoration of the democracy, nor devote himself to philosophy until after the death of Sokrates 333
All Plato’s dialogues were composed during the fifty-one years after the death of Sokrates 334
The Thrasyllean Canon is more worthy of trust than the modern critical theories by which it has been condemned 335
Unsafe grounds upon which those theories proceed 336
Opinions of Schleiermacher, tending to show this 337
Any true theory of Plato must recognise all his varieties, and must be based upon all the works in the Canon, not upon some to the exclusion of the rest 339
CHAPTER VIII.
Platonic Compositions Generally.
Variety and abundance visible in Plato’s writings 342
Plato both sceptical and dogmatical ib.
Poetical vein predominant in some compositions, but not in all 343
Form of dialogue — universal to this extent, that Plato never speaks in his own name 344
No one common characteristic pervading all Plato’s works ib.
The real Plato was not merely a writer of dialogues, but also lecturer and president of a school. In this last important function he is scarcely at all known to us. Notes of his lectures taken by Aristotle 346
Plato’s lectures De Bono obscure and transcendental. Effect which they produced on the auditors 347
They were delivered to miscellaneous auditors. They coincide mainly with what Aristotle states about the Platonic Ideas 348
The lectures De Bono may perhaps have been more transcendental than Plato’s other lectures 349
Plato’s Epistles — in them only he speaks in his own person ib.
Intentional obscurity of his Epistles in reference to philosophical doctrine 350
Letters of Plato to Dionysius II. about philosophy. His anxiety to confine philosophy to discussion among select and prepared minds 351
He refuses to furnish any written, authoritative exposition of his own philosophical doctrine 352
He illustrates his doctrine by the successive stages of geometrical teaching. Difficulty to avoid the creeping in of error at each of these stages 353
No written exposition can keep clear of these chances of error 355
Relations of Plato with Dionysius II. and the friends of the deceased Dion. Pretensions of Dionysius to understand and expound Plato’s doctrines ib.
Impossibility of teaching by written exposition assumed by Plato; the assumption intelligible in his day 357
Standard by which Plato tested the efficacy of the expository process — Power of sustaining a Sokratic cross-examination
358
Plato never published any of the lectures which he delivered at the Academy ib.
Plato would never publish his philosophical opinions in his own name; but he may have published them in the dialogues under the name of others 360
Groups into which the dialogues admit of being thrown 361
Distribution made by Thrasyllus defective, but still useful — Dialogues of Search, Dialogues of Exposition ib.
Dialogues of Exposition — present affirmative result. Dialogues of Search are wanting in that attribute 362
The distribution coincides mainly with that of Aristotle — Dialectic, Demonstrative 363
Classification of Thrasyllus in its details. He applies his own principles erroneously 364
The classification, as it would stand, if his principles were applied correctly 365
Preponderance of the searching and testing dialogues over the expository and dogmatical 366
Dialogues of Search — sub-classes among them recognised by Thrasyllus — Gymnastic and Agonistic, &c. ib.
Philosophy, as now understood, includes authoritative teaching, positive results, direct proofs ib.
The Platonic Dialogues of Search disclaim authority and teaching — assume truth to be unknown to all alike — follow a process devious as well as fruitless 367
The questioner has no predetermined course, but follows the lead given by the respondent in his answers ib.
Relation of teacher and learner. Appeal to authority is suppressed
368
In the modern world the search for truth is put out of sight. Every writer or talker professes to have already found it, and to proclaim it to others 369
The search for truth by various interlocutors was a recognised process in the Sokratic age. Acute negative Dialectic of Sokrates 370
Negative procedure supposed to be represented by the Sophists and the Megarici; discouraged and censured by historians of philosophy 371
Vocation of Sokrates and Plato for the negative procedure: absolute necessity of it as a condition of reasoned truth. Parmenidês of Plato 372
Sokrates considered the negative procedure to be valuable by itself, and separately. His theory of the natural state of the human mind; not ignorance, but false persuasion of knowledge 373
Declaration of Sokrates in the Apology; his constant mission to make war against the false persuasion of knowledge 374
Opposition of feeling between Sokrates and the Dikasts 375
The Dialogues of Search present an end in themselves. Mistake of supposing that Plato had in his mind an ulterior affirmative end, not declared ib.
False persuasion of knowledge — had reference to topics social, political, ethical 376
To those topics, on which each community possesses established dogmas, laws, customs, sentiments, consecrated and traditional, peculiar to itself. The local creed, which is never formally proclaimed or taught, but is enforced unconsciously by every one upon every one else. Omnipotence of King Nomos 377
Small minority of exceptional individual minds, who do not yield to the established orthodoxy, but insist on exercising their own judgment 382
Early appearance of a few free-judging individuals, or free-thinkers in Greece 384
Rise of Dialectic — Effect of the Drama and the Dikastery 386
Application of Negative scrutiny to ethical and social topics by Sokrates ib.
Emphatic assertion by Sokrates of the right of satisfaction for his own individual reason 386
Aversion of the Athenian public to the negative procedure of Sokrates. Mistake of supposing that that negative procedure belongs peculiarly to the Sophists and the Megarici 387
The same charges which the historians of philosophy bring against the Sophists were brought by contemporary Athenians against Sokrates. They represent the standing dislike of free inquiry, usual with an orthodox public 388
Aversion towards Sokrates aggravated by his extreme publicity of speech. His declaration, that false persuasion of knowledge is universal; must be understood as a basis in appreciating Plato’s Dialogues of Search 393
Result called Knowledge, which Plato aspires to. Power of going through a Sokratic cross-examination; not attainable except through the Platonic process and method 396
Platonic process adapted to Platonic topics — man and society 397
Plato does not provide solutions for the difficulties which he has raised. The affirmative and negative veins are in him completely distinct. His dogmas are enunciations à
priori of some impressive sentiment 399
Hypothesis — that Plato had solved all his own difficulties for himself; but that he communicated the solution only to a few select auditors in oral lectures — Untenable 401
Characteristic of the oral lectures — that they were delivered in Plato’s own name. In what other respects they departed from the dialogues, we cannot say 402
Apart from any result, Plato has an interest in the process of search and debate per se. Protracted enquiry is a valuable privilege, not a tiresome obligation 403
Plato has done more than any one else to make the process of enquiry interesting to others, as it was to himself 405
Process of generalisation always kept in view and illustrated throughout the Platonic Dialogues of Search — general terms and propositions made subjects of conscious analysis
406
The Dialogues must be reviewed as distinct compositions by the same author, illustrating each other, but without assignable inter-dependence 407
Order of the Dialogues, chosen for bringing them under separate review. Apology will come first; Timæus, Kritias, Leges, Epinomis last ib.
Kriton and Euthyphron come immediately after Apology. The intermediate dialogues present no convincing grounds for any determinate order 408
CHAPTER IX.
Apology of Sokrates.
The Apology is the real defence delivered by Sokrates before the Dikasts, reported by Plato, without intentional transformation 410
Even if it be Plato’s own composition, it comes naturally first in the review of his dialogues 411
General character of the Apology — Sentiments entertained towards Sokrates at Athens 412
Declaration from the Delphian oracle respecting the wisdom of Sokrates, interpreted by him as a mission to cross-examine the citizens generally — The oracle is proved to be true 413
False persuasion of wisdom is universal — the God alone is wise
414
Emphatic assertion by Sokrates of the cross-examining mission imposed upon him by the God ib.
He had devoted his life to the execution of this mission, and he intended to persevere in spite of obloquy or danger 416
He disclaims the function of a teacher — he cannot teach, for he is not wiser than others. He differs from others by being conscious of his own ignorance ib.
He does not know where competent teachers can be found. He is perpetually seeking for them, but in vain 417
Impression made by the Platonic Apology on Zeno the Stoic 418
Extent of efficacious influence claimed by Sokrates for himself — exemplified by Plato throughout the Dialogues of Search — Xenophon and Plato enlarge it ib.
Assumption by modern critics, that Sokrates is a positive teacher, employing indirect methods for the inculcation of theories of his own 419
Incorrectness of such assumption — the Sokratic Elenchus does not furnish a solution, but works upon the mind of the respondent, stimulating him to seek for a solution of his own 420
Value and importance of this process — stimulating active individual minds to theorise each for itself 421
View taken by Sokrates about death. Other men profess to know what it is, and think it a great misfortune: he does not know 422
Reliance of Sokrates on his own individual reason, whether agreeing or disagreeing with others 423
Formidable efficacy of established public beliefs, generated without any ostensible author 424
CHAPTER X.
Kriton.
General purpose of the Kriton 425
Subject of the dialogue — interlocutors ib.
Answer of Sokrates to the appeal made by Kriton 426
He declares that the judgment of the general public is not worthy of trust: he appeals to the judgment of the one Expert, who is wise on the matter in debate ib.
Principles laid down by Sokrates for determining the question with Kriton. Is the proceeding recommended just or unjust? Never in any case to act unjustly 427
Sokrates admits that few will agree with him, and that most persons hold the opposite opinion: but he affirms that the point is cardinal ib.
Pleading supposed to be addressed by the Laws of Athens to Sokrates, demanding from him implicit obedience 428
Purpose of Plato in this pleading — to present the dispositions of Sokrates in a light different from that which the Apology had presented — unqualified submission instead of defiance
ib.
Harangue of Sokrates delivered in the name of the Laws, would have been applauded by all the democratical patriots of Athens
430
The harangue insists upon topics common to Sokrates with other citizens, overlooking the specialties of his character 431
Still Sokrates is represented as adopting the resolution to obey, from his own conviction; by a reason which weighs with him, but which would not weigh with others ib.
The harangue is not a corollary from this Sokratic reason, but represents feelings common among Athenian citizens 432
Emphatic declaration of the authority of individual reason and conscience, for the individual himself ib.
The Kriton is rhetorical, not dialectical. Difference between Rhetoric and Dialectic 433
The Kriton makes powerful appeal to the emotions, but overlooks the ratiocinative difficulties, or supposes them to be solved ib.
Incompetence of the general public or ἰδιῶται — appeal to the professional Expert 435
Procedure of Sokrates after this comparison has been declared — he does not name who the trustworthy Expert is
ib.
Sokrates acts as the Expert himself: he finds authority in his own reason and conscience 436
CHAPTER XI.
Euthyphron.
Situation supposed in the dialogue — interlocutors 437
Indictment by Melêtus against Sokrates — Antipathy of the Athenians towards those who spread heretical opinions 437
Euthyphron recounts that he is prosecuting an indictment for murder against his own father — Displeasure of his friends at the proceeding 438
Euthyphron expresses full confidence that this step of his is both required and warranted by piety or holiness. Sokrates asks him — What is Holiness? 439
Euthyphron alludes to the punishment of Uranus by his son Kronus and of Kronus by his son Zeus 440
Sokrates intimates his own hesitation in believing these stories of discord among the Gods. Euthyphron declares his full belief in them, as well as in many similar narratives, not in so much circulation ib.
Bearing of this dialogue on the relative position of Sokrates and the Athenian public 441
Dramatic moral set forth by Aristophanes against Sokrates and the freethinkers, is here retorted by Plato against the orthodox champion 442
Sequel of the dialogue — Euthyphron gives a particular example as the reply to a general question 444
Such mistake frequent in dialectic discussion ib.
First general answer given by Euthyphron — that which is pleasing to the Gods is holy. Comments of Sokrates thereon
445
To be loved by the Gods is not the essence of the Holy — they love it because it is holy. In what then does its essence consist? Perplexity of Euthyphron 446
Sokrates suggests a new answer. The Holy is one branch or variety of the Just. It is that branch which concerns ministration by men to the Gods 447
Ministration to the Gods? How? To what purpose? ib.
Holiness — rectitude in sacrifice and prayer — right traffic between men and the Gods 448
This will not stand — the Gods gain nothing — they receive from men marks of honour and gratitude — they are pleased therewith — the Holy, therefore, must be that which is pleasing to the Gods 448
This is the same explanation which was before declared insufficient. A fresh explanation is required from Euthyphron. He breaks off the dialogue ib.
Sokratic spirit of the dialogue — confessed ignorance applying the Elenchus to false persuasion of knowledge 449
The questions always difficult, often impossible to answer. Sokrates is unable to answer them, though he exposes the bad answers of others ib.
Objections of Theopompus to the Platonic procedure 450
Objective view of Ethics, distinguished by Sokrates from the subjective 451
Subjective unanimity coincident with objective dissent ib.
Cross-examination brought to bear upon this mental condition by Sokrates — position of Sokrates and Plato in regard to it 452
The Holy — it has an essential characteristic — what is this? — not the fact that it is loved by the Gods — this is true, but is not its constituent essence 454
Views of the Xenophontic Sokrates respecting the Holy — different from those of the Platonic Sokrates — he disallows any common absolute general type of the Holy — he recognises an indefinite variety of types, discordant and relative ib.
The Holy a branch of the Just — not tenable as a definition, but useful as bringing to view the subordination of logical terms 455
The Euthyphron represents Plato’s way of replying to the charge of impiety, preferred by Melêtus against Sokrates — comparison with Xenophon’s way of replying ib.
ПЛАТОН.
ДОСОКРАТИЧЕСКАЯ ФИЛОСОФИЯ.
ГЛАВА I.
УМОЗРИТЕЛЬНАЯ ФИЛОСОФИЯ В ГРЕЦИИ ДО И ВО ВРЕМЯ СОКРАТА.
Изменение в политическом состоянии Греции во время жизни Платона.
Жизнь Платона охватывает период с 427 по 347 г. до н. э. Он родился в четвертый год Пелопоннесской войны и умер в возрасте 80 лет, примерно в то время, когда Олинф был взят македонским царем Филиппом. Последние годы его жизни стали свидетелями печального разрыва в целостности эллинского мира и даже представили данные, из которых дальновидный эллинский политик мог бы предвидеть нечто вроде грядущего подчинения, реализованного впоследствии победой Филиппа при Херонее. Но в течение первой половины жизни Платона такие предчувствия не казались даже возможными. Силы Эллады, хотя и раздираемые внутренними раздорами, были избыточны в оборонительном отношении и были склонны скорее к агрессии против внешних врагов, особенно против страны, тогда столь мало грозной, как Македония. Именно в этом созерцании Эллады, действующей самостоятельно и самодостаточной — совокупности городов, каждый из которых был политической единицей, но удерживаемой вместе сильными узами расы, языка, религии и общих чувств различного рода, — ум Платона был сформирован и созрел.