«Онтология, или Теория бытия»

cit., Dissert. vi., ch. iii., li, § 592.233.Assuming for the moment that we can know substance to be not one but manifold: that experience reveals to us a plurality of numerically or really, and even specifically and generically, distinct substances. Cf. infra, p. 221.234.Cf. Huxley, Hume, bk. ii., ch. ii. Taine, De L'Intelligence, t. i., Preface, and passim.235.Cf. § 65, infra.236.Such terms as “corruptible,” “destructible,” etc., imply certain attributes of a thing which can be corrupted, destroyed. Conceiving this attribute in the abstract we form the terms “corruptibility,” “destructibility,” etc. So, too, the term “possibility” formed from the adjective “possible,” simply implies in the abstract what the latter implies in the concrete—an active or passive power of a thing to cause or to become something; or else the mind's conception of the non-repugnance of this something. To substantialize a possibility, therefore, is sufficiently absurd; but to speak of a possibility as real and at the same time to deny the reality of any subject in which it would have its reality, is no less so.237.except in the Blessed Eucharist: here we know from Divine Revelation that the accidents of bread and wine exist apart from their connatural substance. We cannot, by the light of reason, prove positively the possibility of such separate existence of accidents; at the most, men of the supreme genius of an Aristotle may have strongly suspected such possibility, and may have convinced themselves of the futility of all attempts to prove in any way the impossibility of such a condition of things. Nor can we, even with the light of Revelation, do any more than show the futility of such attempts, thus negatively defending the possibility of what we know from Revelation to be a fact.238.Cf. n. 1.239.Cf. Maher, Psychology, ch. xxii., for a full analysis and refutation of phenomenist theories that would deny the substantiality of the human person.240.“Substantia est res, cujus naturae debetur esse non in alio; accidens vero est res, cujus naturae debetur esse in alio.”—Quodlib., ix., a. 5, ad. 2.241.Cf. Descartes, Oeuvres, edit. Cousin, tome ix., p. 166—apud Mercier, Ontologie, p. 280.242.Paulsen, Einleitung in die Philosophie, Berlin, 1896, S. 135—apud Mercier, loc. cit.243.and also appetitive; as in mental life appetition is a natural consequent of perception. It is in accordance with this latter idea that Wundt conceives all reality as being in its ultimate nature appetitive activity: the Ego is a “volitional unit” and the universe a “collection of volitional units”.—Cf. Wundt, System der Philosophie, Leipzig, 1889, S. 415-421.244.Principles of Psychology, Pt. ii., ch. i., § 59.245.But from Descartes' doctrine of two passive substances so antithetically opposed to each other the transition to Spinozism was easy and obvious. If mind and matter are so absolutely opposed as thought and extension, how can they unite to form one human individual in man? If both are purely passive, and if God alone puts into them their conscious states and their mechanical movements respectively, what remains proper to each but a pure passivity that would really be common to both? Would it not be more consistent then to refer this thought-essence or receptivity of conscious activities, and this extension-essence or receptivity of mechanical movements, to God as their proper source, to regard them as two attributes of His unique and self-existent substance, and thus to regard God as substantially immanent in all phenomena, and these as only different expressions of His all-pervading essence? This is what Spinoza did; and his monism in one form or other is the last word of many contemporary philosophers on the nature of the universe which constitutes the totality of human experience.—Cf. Höffding, Outlines of Psychology, ch. ii., and criticism of same apud Maher, Psychology, ch. xxiii.246.“Esse substantiæ non dependet ab esse alterius sicut ei inhærens, licet omnia dependeant a Deo sicut a causa prima.”—St. Thomas, De Causa Materiæ, cap. viii.247.Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit. § 594.248.Ibid., §§ 597-600.249.“Illud proprie dicitur esse, quod ipsum habet esse, quasi in suo esse subsistens. Unde solæ substantiæ proprie et vere dicuntur entia; accidens vero non habet esse, sed eo aliquid est, et hac ratione ens dicitur: sicut albedo dicitur ens quia ea aliquid est album. Et propter hoc dicitur in Metaph., l. 7 [al. 6], c. i. [Arist.], quod accidens dicitur magis entis quam ens.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i. q. 90, art. 2. “Illud cui advenit accidens, est ens in se completum consistens in suo esse, quod quidem esse naturaliter præcedit accidens, quod supervenit: et ideo accidens superveniens, ex conjunctione sui cum eo, cui supervenit, non causat illud esse in quo res subsistit per quod res est ens per se: sed causat quoddam esse secundum, sine quo res subsistens intelligi potest esse, sicut primum potest intelligi sine secundo, vel prædicatum sine subjecto. Unde ex accidente et subjecto non fit unum per se, sed unum per accidens, et ideo ex eorum conjunctione non resultat essentia quædam, sicut ex conjunctione formæ cum materia: propter quod accidens neque rationem completæ essentiæ habet, neque pars completæ essentiæ est, sed sicut est ens secundum quid, ita et essentiam secundum quid habet.”—De Ente et Essentia, ch. vii.250.“Non est definitio substantiæ, ens per se sine subjecto, nec definitio accidentis, ens in subjecto; sed quidditati seu essentiæ substantiæ competit habere esse non in subjecto; quidditati autem sive essentiæ accidentis competit habere esse in subjecto.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., iii., q. 77, art. 1, ad. 2.251.Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., §§ 595-596.252.ibid., § 619.253.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., §§ 320-325.254.Kleutgen, op. cit., §§ 618, 624.255.This logical usage is applied equally to attributes of a logical subject which is not itself a substance but an accident; it turns solely on the point whether the concept of the logical predicate of a judgment is or is not connected by an absolute logical connexion, a connexion of thought, with the concept of the logical subject.256.Cf. St. Thomas, Quaest. Disp., De Spir. Creat., art. 11, ad. 7.257.Cf., however, § 68, p. 246, n. 2, infra.258.St. Thomas, whose language is usually so moderate, thus expresses his view of the doctrine afterwards propounded by Descartes when the latter declared the essence of the soul to be thought: “Quidquid dicatur de potentiis animae, tamen nullus unquam opinatur, nisi insanus, quod habitus et actus animae sint ipsa ejus essentia.”—Quaest. Disp., De Spir. Creat., art. 11, ad 1. For a very convincing treatment of this question, cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., §§ 625-626.259.De San, Cosmologia, § 323, apud Mercier, op. cit., § 158.260.op. cit., § 625.261.St. Thomas, Summa Theol., iii., q. 17, art. 2, c.262.Hence St. Thomas says, in regard to the Blessed Eucharist, that the accidents of bread and wine had not an existence of their own as long as the substance of bread and wine was there; that this is true of accidents generally; that it is not they that exist, but rather their subjects; that their function is to determine these subjects to exist as characterized in a certain way, as whiteness gives snow a white existence: “Dicendum quod accidentia panis et vini, manente substantia panis et vini non habebant ipsa esse sicut nec alia accidentia, sed subjecta eorum habebant hujusmodi esse per ea, sicut nix est alba per albedinem.”—Summa Theol., iii., q. 77, art. 1, ad. 4.263.For the arguments on both sides cf. Mercier, Ontologie, § 156 (pp. 308 sqq.). The indirect argument which the author derives from the fact that the Divine Concursus is necessary for the activity of creatures, while offering an intelligible explanation of this necessity on Thomistic principles, does not touch the probability of other explanations.264.Cf. Urraburu's definition: “entitas vel realitas a subjecto realiter distincta, cujus totum esse consistit in ultima determinatione rei ad aliquod munus obeundum, vel ad aliquam realem denominationem actu habendam, sine qua, saltem in individuo sumpta, res eadem potest existere absolute”.—op. cit., § 120 (p. 380).265.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 291 (p. 854, quarta opinio), p. 854.266.Whether immanent vital acts—especially of the spiritual faculties in man: thoughts, volitions, etc.—are mere modes, or whether they are absolute accidents, having their own proper and positive reality which perfects their subject by affecting it, is a disputed question. Habits, acquired by repetition of such acts, e.g. knowledge and virtue, belonging as they do to the category of quality, are more than mere modalities of the human subject: they have an absolute, positive entity, whereby they add to the total perfection of the latter.267.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 121 (pp. 386 sqq.).268.The fact that Aristotle [Metaph., lib. vii. (al. vi.), ch. iii.] seems to have placed a real distinction between extension and corporeal substance, while he could not have suspected the absolute separability of the former from the latter, would go to show that he did not regard separability as the only test of a real distinction. Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., ibid.269.Obviously we are not concerned herewith all the attributes which by a necessity of thought we ascribe to an essence, e.g. the corruptibility of a corporeal substance, or the immortality of a spiritual substance. These are not entities really distinct from the substance, but only aspects which we recognize to be necessary corollaries of its nature. We are concerned only with properties which are real powers, faculties, forces, aptitudes of things.—Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., § 627.270.op. cit., § 628.271.«Tertii sunt, qui dicunt, quod potentiae animae nec adeo sunt idem ipsi animae, sicut sunt ejus principia intrinsica et essentialia, nec adeo diversae, ut cedant in aliud genus, sicut accidentia; sed in genere substantiae sunt per reductionem ... et ideo quasi medium tenentes inter utramque opinionem dicunt, quasdam animae potentias sic differre ad invicem, ut nullo modo dici possint una potentia: non tamen concedunt, eas simpliciter diversificari secundum essentiam, ita ut dicantur diversae essentiae, sed differre essentialiter in genere potentiae, ita ut dicantur diversa instrumenta ejusdem substantiae.» — In lib. ii., dist. xxiv., p. 1, art. 2, q. 1.

В том же контексте он объясняет, что мы должны понимать под отнесением чего-либо к определенной категории per reductionem: «Sunt enim quaedam, quae sunt in genere per se, aliqua per reductionem ad idem genus. Illa per se sunt in genere, quae participant essentiam completam generis, ut species et individua; illa vero per reductionem, quae non dicunt completam essentiam.... Quaedam reducuntur sicut principia ... aut essentialia, sicut sunt materia et forma in genere substantiae; aut integrantia, sicut partes substantiae.... Quaedam reducuntur sicut viae ... aut sicut viae ad res, et sic motus et mutationes, ut generatio, reducuntur ad substantiam; aut sicut viae a rebus, et sic habent reduci potentiae ad genus substantiae. Prima enim agendi potentia, quae egressum dicitur habere ab ipsa substantia, ad idem genus reducitur, quae non adeo elongatur ab ipsa substantia, ut dicat aliam essentiam completam.» — ibid., ad. 8. 272.“Quoniam potentia creaturae arctata est, non potuit creatura habere posse perfectum, nisi esset in ea potentiarum multitudo, ex quarum collectione sive adunatione, una supplente defectum alterius, resultaret unum posse completum, sicut manifeste animadverti potest in organis humani corporis, quorum unumquodque indiget a virtute alterius adjuvari.”—In lib. ii., dist. xxiv., p. 1, art. 2, q. 8.273.The student will find in Maher's Psychology (ch. iii.) a clear and well-reasoned exposition of the inconsistency and groundlessness of such attacks on the doctrine of faculties.274.Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., § 636-637.275.“Cum corpus hominis aut cujuslibet alterius animalis sit quoddam totum naturale, dicit unum ex eo quod unam formam habeat qua perficitur non solum secundum aggregationem aut compositionem, ut accidit in domo et in aliis hujusmodi. Unde opportet quod quaelibet pars hominis et animalis recipiat esse [i.e. sibi proprium] et speciem ab anima sicut a propria forma. Unde Philosophus dicit (l. ii. de anima, text. 9), quod recedente anima neque oculus neque caro neque aliqua pars manet nisi aequivoce.”—St. Thomas, Quaest. Disp. de anima, art. 10—apud Kleutgen, op. cit., § 632.276.The most perfect real unity is of course that which includes all perfection in the simplicity of its actual essence, without any dispersion or plurality of its being, without any admixture of accident or potentiality. Such is the unity of the Infinite Being alone. No finite being possesses its actuality tota simul. And the creature falls short of perfect unity in proportion as it attains to this actuality only by a multiplicity of real changes, by a variety of really distinct principles and powers, essential and accidental, in its concrete mode of being. In proportion as created things are higher or lower in the scale of being (47), they realize a higher or a lower grade of unity in their mode of individual existence.277.We are concerned here only with finite, created substances, as distinct from the Divine Uncreated Substance on whom these depend (64).278.Aristotle, Categ. ch. iii., passim; Metaph., l. v. (al. vi.), ch. viii.; St. Thomas, In Metaph., l. v. lect. 10; Kleutgen, op. cit., § 589-591.279.Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., §§ 587, 602-603.280.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., §§ 277, 279.281.Cf. Science of Logic, ii., § 217 (pp. 66 sqq.).282.Sciendum est quod nomen naturae significat quodlibet principium intrinsicum motus; secundum quod Philosophus dicit quod natura est principium motus in eo in quo est per se, et non secundum accidens.—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., iii., q. 2, art. 1 in c.283.And here we are reminded of the view of many medieval scholastics of high authority, that the same material entity can have at the same time a plurality of formative principles or substantial forms of different grades of perfection.284.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 282 (p. 825).285.For want of a more appropriate rendering we translate the Latin term suppositum (Gr. ὑπόστασις) by the phrase “subsisting thing”; though the classical terms are really generic: suppositum being a genus of which there are two species, suppositum irrationale (“thing” or “subsisting thing”) and suppositum rationale (“person”).—Cf. infra, pp. 265-6.286.Complete in every way: in substantial and in specific perfections. The separated soul, though it is an existing individual substance, retains its essential communicability to its connatural material principle, the body. Hence it has not “subsistence,” it is not a “person”.—Cf. infra, p. 264.287.“Per se agere convenit per se existenti. Sed per se existens quandoque potest dici aliquid, si non sit inhærens ut accidens, vel ut forma materialis, etiamsi sit pars. Sed proprie et per se subsistens dicitur quod neque est praedicto modo inhærens neque est pars. Secundum quem modum oculus aut manus non potest dici per se subsistens, et per consequens nec per se operans. Unde et operationes partium attribuuntur toti per partes. Dicimus enim quod homo videt per oculum et palpat per manum.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. 75, art. 2, ad. 2.288.Cf. preceding note. St. Thomas continues: “Potest igitur dici quod anima intelligit, sicut oculus videt, sed magis proprie dicitur quod homo intelligat per animam” (ibid.); and elsewhere he writes: “Dicendum quod anima est pars humanae speciei [i.e. naturae]. Et ideo, licet sit separata, quia tamen retinet naturam unibilitatis, non potest dici substantia individua quae est hypostasis vel substantia prima, sicut nec manus, nec quaecumque alia partium hominis; et sic non competit ei neque definitio personae, neque nomen.”—Summa Theol., i., q. 29, art. 1, ad. 5.289.Cf. Science of Logic, i., §§ 54-5.290.All created subsisting things and persons depend, of course, essentially on the Necessary Being for their existence and for their activity. This Necessary Being we know from Revelation to be Triune, Three in Persons, One in Nature. The subsistence of each Divine Person of the Blessed Trinity excludes all modes of dependence.291.“Hoc ... quod est per se agere, excellentiori modo convenit substantiis rationalis naturae quam aliis. Nam solae substantiae rationales habent dominium sui actus, ita quod in eis est agere et non agere; aliae vero substantiae magis aguntur quam agunt. Et ideo conveniens fuit ut substantia individua rationalis naturae speciale nomen haberet.”—St. Thomas, Quaest. Disp. de Potentia, q. ix., art. 1, ad. 3.292.Cf. Billot, De Verbo Incarnato, q. ii.—apud Mercier, op. cit., § 151 (pp. 299-300).293.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 291, for an exhaustive list of the authorities in favour of each of the various views propounded in this present context.294.“Natura singularis et integra per se consituitur in sua independentia, non aliquo positivo addito ultra illam entitatem positivam, qua est haec natura.”—Scotus, iii., Dist. i. q. 1, n. 9 and n. 11, ad. 3. Cf. Suarez, Metaph., Disp. xxxiv. § 2; Kleutgen, op. cit., § 616; Franzelin, De verbo Incarnato, Th. xxix.295.op. cit., § 293 (p. 861).296.Neither is it a natural union in the sense of being due to the human nature; it is wholly undue to the latter, and is in this sense supernatural.297.op. cit., § 293 (p. 861).298.ibid. Farther on (p. 863) he says it is certain that the Divine Nature of the Word is substantially united with humanity in a unity of person or subsistence: “certum est eamdem [naturam divinam] substantialiter uniri cum humanitate in unitate suppositi;” and for this he considers that the human nature must be incomplete “in ratione personae”. But this proves nothing; for of course the human nature must be wanting in personality. But it is complete as a nature. Nor does the aphorism he quotes—“Quidquid substantiae in sua specie completae accedit, accidens est,”—apply to subsistence or personality supervening on a complete substance.299.“Humanitas illa [scil. Christi], quamvis completa in esse naturae, non tamen habet ultimum complementum in genere substantiae cum in se non subsistat.”—ibid., § 296 (p. 866).300.This view, which has many supporters, is clearly explained and ably defended by Mercier in his Ontologie, § 151 (pp. 298-302), § 52 (pp. 134-5), § 49 (p. 127, n. 1).301.Cf. Mercier, op. cit., § 49 (p. 127, n. 1).302.Hence Urraburu gives this real definition of subsistence: ultimus naturae terminus in ordine substantiali sive in ratione existentis per se: the ultimate term (or determination) of a nature in the order of substantiality or of “existing by itself”—op. cit., § 296 (p. 866).303.“Sicut enim modus accidentalis figurae terminat quantitatem, et modus ubicationis constituit rem hic et non alibi, ita modus substantialis personalitatis terminans naturam reddit illam incommunicabilem alieno supposito.”—Urraburu, op. cit., § 291 (p. 854).304.The terms “Self,” “Ego,” and “Person” we take to be identical in reference to the human individual. The mind is not the Ego, self, or person, but only a part of it.—Cf. Maher, Psychology, ch. vi., p. 104.305.Cf. Maher, Psychology, ch. xvii.306.ibid., p. 365.307.Cf. Maher, Psychology, p. 363.308.Cf. Maher, Psychology, p. 365 (italics in last sentence ours).309.Cf. Rickaby, First Principles, p. 370.310.Cf. Maher, ibid., pp. 487-92; Mercier, Psychologie, ii., pp. 197-224 (6th edit.); Ontologie, § 153 (p. 304).311.There are cogent theological reasons also against the view that consciousness constitutes personality. For instance, the human nature of our Divine Lord has its own proper consciousness, which, nevertheless, does not constitute this nature a person.312.Essay Concerning Human Understanding, bk. ii., ch. xxvii.313.«Тогда, будучи одним растением, которое имеет такую организацию частей в одном связном теле, участвующем в одной общей жизни, оно продолжает оставаться тем же самым растением, пока оно продолжает участвовать в той же самой жизни, хотя эта жизнь передается различным частицам материи, жизненно соединенным с живым растением, в подобной непрерывной организации, соответствующей этому сорту растений....»

«Случай не сильно отличается у животных, так что любой может отсюда увидеть, что делает животное и продолжает его тем же самым....»

«Это также показывает, в чем состоит идентичность одного и того же человека: а именно, ни в чем ином, как в участии в одной и той же непрерывной жизни, постоянно ускользающими частицами материи, в последовательности жизненно соединенными с одним и тем же организованным телом.... Ибо если идентичность души сама по себе делает одного и того же человека, и в природе материи нет ничего, почему один и тот же индивидуальный дух может быть соединен [т.е. последовательно] с разными телами, будет возможно, что ... люди, живущие в отдаленные века и с разными темпераментами, могли быть одним и тем же человеком....» — «Опыт о человеческом разумении», кн. ii. гл. xxvii. § 4-6. И все же, хотя «идентичность души» не делает «одного и того же человека», Локк сразу же утверждает, что идентичность сознания, которая является лишь функцией души, делает «одну и ту же личность». 314.Essay Concerning Human Understanding, bk. ii., ch. xxvii., § 7. Names do not stand for ideas or concepts but for conceived realities; and the question here is: What is the conceived reality (in the existing human individual) for which the term “person” stands?315.ibid., § 9.316.Essay Concerning Human Understanding, bk. ii., ch. xxvii., §§ 13, 14.317.Essay Concerning Human Understanding, bk. ii., ch. xxvii., § 13.318.For a searching criticism of such theories of the Ego or human person, cf. Maher, Psychology, ch. xxii.319.ibid., § 19.320.p. 276.321.Cf. Maher's criticism of Professor James' theory on double personality (op. cit., ch. xxii., pp. 491-2): “Professor James devotes much space to these 'mutations' of the Ego, yet overlooks the fact that they are peculiarly fatal, not to his adversaries, but to his own theory that ‘the present thought is the only thinker,’ and that seeming identity is sufficiently preserved by each thought 'appropriating' and ‘inheriting’ the contents of its predecessor. The difficulties presented to this process of inheritance by such facts as sleep and swooning have been already dwelt upon [cf. ibid., p. 480 (c)]; but here they are if possible increased. The last conscious thought of, say, Felida 2 has to transmit its gathered experience not to its proximate conscious successor, which is Felida 1, but across seven months of vacuum until on the extinction of Felida 1 the next conscious thought which constitutes Felida 2 is born into existence. If the single personality is hard for Mr. James to explain, ‘double-personality’ at least doubles his difficulties.”322.Cf. infra, § 82.323.Ποιότητα δὲ λέγω, καθ᾽ ἤν ποιοί τινες εἰναι λέγονται.—Categ., ch. iv. Cf. St. Thomas: “Haec est ratio formalis qualitatis, per quam respondemus interroganti qualis res sit.”324.The other accidents, e.g. actio and passio, in so far as they change the perfection of the substance, do so only by producing qualities in it. Quantity, which is the connatural accident of all corporeal substance, adds of itself no special complement or degree of accidental perfection to the latter, in the sense of disposing (or indisposing) the latter for the attainment of the full and final perfection due to its specific nature; but only in the sense that it supposes more or less of that kind of substance to exist, or in the sense in which it is understood to include the qualities of which it may be the immediate subject.—Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 326.325.In Praedicamenta, ch. i.326.Cf. Maher, Psychology, ch. xii, xiii, xxiii, xxv. Bergson rightly recognizes the irreducibility of quality to quantity (Essai sur les données immediates de la conscience, passim). But he wrongly infers from this “fundamental antinomy,” as he calls it, the existence, in each human individual, of a two-fold Ego, a deeper self where all is quality, and a superficial self which projects conscious states, in static and numerical isolation from one another, into a homogeneous space where all is quantitative, mathematical. The reasonable inference is merely that the human mind recognizes in the data of its experience a certain richness and variety of modes of real being.327.Metaph. V., ch. xiv., where the four groups are finally reduced to two.328.Summa Theol., ia, iiae, q. 49, art. 2.329.To be distinguished from the passio which is correlative of actio and which consists in the actual undergoing of the latter, the actual reception of the accidental form which is the term of the latter.330.“Inter omnes qualitates, figurae maxime sequuntur et demonstrant speciem rerum. Quod maxime in plantis et animalibus patet, in quibus nullo certiori indicio diversitas specierum dijudicari potest, quam diversitate figurae.”—St. Thomas, In VII. Physic, lect. 5.331.Every natural habit, as we have just seen, has an essential relation to activity. Every such habit inheres immediately in some operative faculty, as science in the intellect, or justice in the will. All natural habits are operative. There is, however, as we know from Divine Revelation, an “entitative” habit, a habitus entitativus, which affects the substance itself of the human soul, ennobling its natural mode of being and so perfecting it as to raise it to a higher or supernatural plane of being, to an order of existence altogether undue to its nature: the supernaturally infused habit of sanctifying grace.332.Eth. Eud., ii., 2.333.“Vires naturales non agunt operationes suas mediantibus aliquibus habitibus, quia secundum seipsas sunt determinatae ad unum.”—Summa Theol., ia iiæ, q. 49, art. 4, ad 2.334.“Intellectus ... est subjectum habitus. Illi enim competit esse subjectum habitus quod est in potentia ad multa; et hoc maxime competit intellectui....”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia, iie, q. 50, art. 4, ad. 1. “Omnis potentia quae diversimode potest ordinari ad agendum, indiget habitu, quo bene disponatur ad suum actum. Voluntas autem cum sit potentia rationalis, diversimode potest ad agendum ordinari: et ideo oportet in voluntate aliquem habitum ponere, quo bene disponatur ad suum actum ...,”—ibid. art. 5, in c.335.“Habitualis dispositio requiritur ubi subjectum est in potentia ad multa. Operationes vero quae sunt ab anima per corpus, principaliter quidem sunt ipsius animae, secundario vero ipsius corporis. Habitus autem proportionantur operationibus; unde ex similibus actibus similes habitus causantur, ut dicitur in 2 Ethic., cap. 1 et 2; in corpore vero possunt esse secundario, inquantum scilicet corpus disponitur et habilitatur ad prompte deserviendum operationibus animae.”—Summa Theol., ia iiæ, q. 49, art. 1, in c.336.Cf. St. Thomas, ibid., q. 50, art. 1.—Mercier, Ontologie, § 164.337.According to the scholastic theory of matter and form the matter must be predisposed by certain qualities for the reception of a given substantial form. The chemical elements which form a compound will not do so in any and every condition, but only when definitely disposed and brought together under favourable conditions. These elementary qualities, considered in themselves, are not habits or dispositions: “Unde qualitates simplices elementorum, quae secundum unum modum determinatum naturis elementorum conveniunt, non dicimus dispositiones vel habitus, sed simplices qualitates.”—St. Thomas, ibid., q. 49, art. 4, in C. They are natural qualities and not dispositions produced by disposing causes.338.St. Thomas regards the distinction between habits and mere dispositions as a distinction not of degree but of kind: “Dispositio et habitus possunt distingui sicut diversae species unius generis subalterni, ut dicantur dispositiones illae qualitates primae speciei quibus convenit secundum propriam rationem ut de facili amittantur, quia habent causas mutabiles, ut aegritudo et sanitas; habitus vero dicantur illae qualitates quae secundum suam rationem habent quod non de facili transmutentur quia habent causas immobiles; sicut scientia et virtutes; et secundum hoc disposito non fit habitus.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia, iiæ, q. 49, art. 2, ad. 3.339.“Vires sensitivae dupliciter possunt considerari: uno modo, secundum quod operanter ex instinctu naturae; alio modo, secundum quod operantur ex imperio rationis. Secundum igitur quod operantur ex instinctu naturae, sic ordinantur ad unum, sicut et natura; et ideo sicut in potentiis naturalibus non sunt aliqui habitus, ta etiam nec in potentiis sensitivis, secundum quod ex instinctu naturae operantur. Secundum vero quod operantur ex imperio rationis, sic ad diversa ordinari possunt: et sic possunt esse in eis aliqui habitus, quibus bene aut male ad aliquid disponuntur.”—St. Thomas, ibid., q. 50, art. 3, in c. In this context the angelic doctor, following Aristotle, places the virtues of temperance and fortitude in the sense appetite as controlled by the rational will. For the same reason he admits the possibility of habits in the faculties of internal sense perception, though not in the external senses (ibid., ad. 3).340.“Quia bruta animalia a ratione hominis per quandam consuetudinem disponuntur ad aliquid operandum sic, vel aliter, hoc modo in brutis animalibus habitus quodammodo poni possunt.... Deficit tamen ratio habitus quantum ad usum voluntatis quia non habent dominium utendi vel non utendi, quod videtur ad rationem habitus pertinere; et ideo, proprie loquendo, in eis habitus esse non possunt.”—ibid., ad. 2.341.It must not be forgotten that habit is an accident, an accidental perfection of the substance or nature of an individual agent; it immediately affects the operative power of the agent, which operative power is itself an accident of this agent's nature (constituting the second sub-class of the accident, Quality). Habit is thus at once an actuality or actualization of the operative power and a potentiality of further and more perfect acts. It is intermediate between the operative power and the complete actualization which the power receives by the acts that spring from the latter as perfected by the habit. Faculty and habit form one complete proximate principle of those acts: a principle which is at once a partial actualization of the individual agent's nature and a potentiality of further actualization of this nature.342.“Si potentiae animae non sunt ipsa essentia animae, sequitur quod sint accidentia in aliquo novem generum contenta. Sunt enim in secunda specie qualitatis, quæ dicitur potentia vel impotentia naturalis.”—Q. Disp. de Spir. Creat., art. 11, in c.343.Cf. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. 76, art. 1, in c.—“Cum potentia et actus dividant ens, et quodlibet genus entis, opportet quod ad idem genus referatur potentia et actus; et ideo si actus non est in genere substantiae, potentia, quæ dicitur ad illum actum, non potest esse in genere substantiae. Operatio autem animae non est in genere substantiae, sed in solo Deo, cujus operatio est ejus substantia.”—Cf. Zigliara, Ontologia (9), xi.: “Actus et potentia essentialiter ad illum actum ordinata sunt in eodem genere supremo.”344.“Nec in angelo, nec in aliqua creatura, virtus vel potentia operativa est idem quod sua essentia.... Actus ad quem comparatur potentia operativa est operatio. In angelo autem non est idem intelligere et esse; nec aliqua alia operatio, aut in ipso aut in quocunque alio creato, est idem quod ejus esse. Unde essentia angeli non est ejus potentia intellectiva, nec alicujus creati essentia est ejus operativa potentia.”—ibid., q. 54, art 3.345.As we shall see later, action as such does not perfect or change the agens, unless when, as in immanent action, the agens is identical with the patiens. Action formally actualizes or perfects the patiens: actio fit in passo. But the exercise of any activity by an agent undoubtedly connotes or implies a perfection of this agent. It is not, however, that the actual operation as such (unless it is immanent) adds a new perfection to the agent. Rather the agent's power of acting, revealed to us in its exercise, is for us a measure of the actual perfection of the agent. But the question remains: Is this power or perfection, so far as we know it, a substantial perfection? Is it the very perfection itself of the agent's substance or nature as known to us? Or is it an accidental perfection which is for us an index of a corresponding degree of substantial perfection? In getting our knowledge of the nature of a substance from a consideration of its sensible accidents, its phenomena, its operations—according to the rule, Operari sequitur esse: qualis est operatio talis est natura—can we use a single inference, from action to nature, or must we use a double inference, from action to power, and from power to nature? But even if we have to make the double inference, this of itself does not prove any more than a conceptual distinction between power and nature.346.Cf.. St. Thomas, Q. Disp. de spir. creat., art. 11, in c.—Maher, Psychology ch. iii.347.Cf. Mercier, Ontologie, § 168.348.Cf. ibid., op. cit., § 169; Maher, Psychology, ch. iii. (p. 29, n. 3.)349.Of course all accidents are “forms” in the sense of being determining principles of their subjects, these being considered as determinable or receptive principles. Even quantity is a form in this sense. But quantity itself does not appear to be a “simple” principle in the sense of being “indivisible”: its very function is to make the corporeal substance divisible into integral parts. What then of all those qualities which inhere immediately in the quantity of corporeal substances? They are determinations or affections of a composite, extended, divisible subject. Conceived in the abstract they have, of course, the attributes of indivisibility, immutability, etc., characteristic of all abstract essences (14). But in their physical actuality in what intelligible sense can they be said to be simple, indivisible entities?350.Summa Theol., ia, iiae, q. 52, art. 2; iia, iiae, q. 24, art. 4, 5.—Q. Disp. de Virtutibus in communi, q. i, art. 11, in c.—I. In Sentent., Dist., 17, q. 2, art. 2.—Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., §§ 329-332, for arguments and authorities. The author himself defends the former view, according to which alteration takes place by a real addition or substraction of grades of the same quality.351.I. In Sentent., Dist., 17, q. 2, art. 2.352.iia, iiae, q. 24, art. 4, ad. 3.353.Q. Disp. de Virtut., q. 1, art. 11, in c.354.The scientific concept of “volume” is identical with the common and philosophical concept of “external, actual, local, or spatial extension”. The functions ascribed by physics and mechanics to the “mass” of a body have no other source, in the body, than what philosophers understand by the “internal extension” or “quantity” of the body.—Cf. Nys, Cosmologie (Louvain, 1903), §§ 192-203.355.The terms quantity and extension are commonly taken as synonymous; but quantity is more properly applied to the internal plurality of integral parts of the substance itself, extension to the dispersion of these parts outside one another in space.356.Hence Aristotle's definition in Metaph., iv.: “Quantum dicitur, quod [est] in insita divisibile, quorum utrumque aut singula unum quid et hoc quid apta sunt esse”: a quantified substance is one which is divisible into parts that are really in it [i.e. partes integrantes], parts each of which is capable of becoming a distinct subsisting individual thing.—Cf. Nys, Cosmologie, § 154.357.“Longitudo, latitudo et profunditas quantitates quaedam, sed non substantiae sunt. Quantitas enim non est substantia, sed magis cui haec ipsa primo insunt illud est substantia.”—Metaph., L. vii., ch. iii.358.Physic, L. i., ch. ii.359.L. ii., ch. iv.360.Cf. § 62 supra.361.“Propria ... totalitas substantiae continetur indifferenter in parva vel magna quantitate; sicut ... tota natura hominis in magno, vel parvo homine.”—Summa Theol., iii., q. 76, art. 1, ad. 3.362.No argument in favour of this view can be based on the use of the term species (“manentibus dumtaxat speciebus panis et vini”) by the Fathers of the Council of Trent. For them, as for all Catholic philosophers and theologians of the time, the scholastic term species, used in such a context, meant simply the objective, perceptible accidents of the substance. Cf. Nys, op. cit., § 175.363.Отсюда значимость строк в гимне святого Фомы, Adoro Te devote: —

Visus, tactus, gustus in te fallitur, Sed auditu solo tuto creditur.

364.and neither does Revelation. The Body of our Blessed Lord exists in the Eucharist without its connatural external extension and consequent impenetrability. But according to the common teaching of Catholic theologians it has its internal quantity, its distinct integral parts, organs and members—really distinct from one another, though interpenetrating and not spatially external to one another. Its mode of existence in the space occupied by the sacramental species is thus analogous to the mode in which the soul is in the body, or a pure spirit in space.365.We know from Revelation that the Body of our Lord exists in this way in the Eucharist. We know, too, from Revelation that after the general resurrection the glorified bodies of the just will be real bodies, real corporeal substances, and nevertheless that they will be endowed with properties very different from those which they possess in the present state: that they will be immortal, incorruptible, impassible, “spiritual” (cf. 1 Cor. xv.). The Catholic philosopher who adds those scattered rays of revealed light to what his own rational analysis of experience tells him about matter and spirit, will understand the possibility of such a kinship between the latter as will make the fact of their union in his own nature and person not perhaps any less wonderful, but at any rate a little less surprising and inscrutable: and this without committing himself to the objective idealism whereby Berkeley, while endeavouring to show the utter unreality of matter, only succeeded in persuading himself that its reality was not independent of all mind.366.“Ὥστε τὸ τοῦ περιέχοντος πέρας ἀκίνητον πρῶτον, τουτ᾽ ἔστιν ὁ τόπος.”—Physic, L. iv., ch. iv. (6).367.The category Situs is commonly interpreted to signify the mutual spatial relations or dispositions of the various parts of a body in the place actually occupied by the latter.368.A body deprived of its connatural extension exists in space in a manner analogous to that in which the soul is in the body. The Body of our Divine Lord is in the Eucharist in this manner—“sacramentaliter”.369.Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., § 624.370.Cf. Zigliara, Ontologia (35), iv.371.Cf. Nys, La Notion d'Espace (Louvain, 1901), pp. 95 sqq.—La Notion de Temps (Louvain, 1898), pp. 123 sqq.372.“Quid est ergo tempus? Si nemo ex me quaerat, scio; si quaerenti explicare velim, nescio.”—Confess. L. xi., ch. xiv.373.“Cum enim intelligimus extrema diversa alicujus medii, et anima dicat, illa esse duo nunc, hoc prius, illud posterius quasi numerando prius et posterius in motu, tunc hoc dicimus esse tempus.”—St. Thomas, in Phys., L. iv. lect. 17a.374.Sentent., Dist. xix., q. ii., art. 1.—Cf. Lect. xxiii. in iv. Physic.375.Physic., iv., ch. xi.—Cf. St. Thomas in loc.376.“The conception of variation united with sameness is not, however, the whole cognition of time. For this the mind must be able to combine in thought two different movements or pulsations of consciousness, so as to represent an interval between them. It must hold together two nows, conceiving them, in succession, yet uniting them through that intellectual synthetic activity by which we enumerate a collection of objects—a process or act which carries concomitantly the consciousness of its own continuous unity.”—Maher, Psychology, ch. xvii.377.That is, provided we abstract from all comparison of this internal time duration with that of any other current of conscious experiences in the estimating mind. As a matter of fact we always and necessarily compare the time duration of any particular experienced change with that of the remaining portion of the whole current of successive conscious states which make up our mental life. And thus we feel, not that the four-mile walk had a longer time duration than the three-mile walk, but rather that it took place at a quicker rate, more rapidly, than the latter. But if a mind which had no other consciousness of change whatsoever than, e.g. that of the two walks experienced successively, no other standard change with which to compare each of them as it occurred—if such a mind experienced each in this way, would it pronounce the four-mile walk to have occupied a longer time than the three-mile walk?—Cf. infra, p. 327.378.This is true on the assumption that the intrinsic time-duration of a successive, continuous change, its divisibility into distinct “nows” related as “before” and “after,” is really identical with the continuous, successive states constituting the change itself, and is not a really distinct mode superadded to this change, a continuous series of “quandocationes,” distinct from the change, and giving the latter its temporal duration. But many philosophers hold that in all creatures duration is a mode of their existence really distinct from the creatures themselves that have this duration or continued existence.—Cf. infra, § 86.379.Cf. Science of Logic, ii., § 246, pp. 201 sqq.380.op. cit., c. xvii.381.op. cit., c. xvii.382.Cf. Nys, La Notion de Temps (Lovain, 1898), p. 104.383.The fact that we can perceive and estimate temporal duration only extrinsically, and in ultimate analysis by comparison with the flow of our own conscious states, and that therefore we can have no perception or conception of the intrinsic time duration of any change, seems to have been overlooked by De San (Cosmologia, pp. 528-9) when he argues from our perception of different rates of motion, in favour of the view that time duration is not really identical with motion or change, but a superadded mode, really distinct from the latter.384.Cf. Nys, La Notion de Temps, pp. 85 sqq.385.Cf. Nys, op. cit., pp. 120 sqq., for a defence of the view that an actually infinite multitude involves no contradiction.386.ibid., pp. 162-9.387.De Consolatione, L. v., pr. ult.388.Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., § 624.389.“Est ergo dicendum, quod, cum aeternitas sit mensura esse permanentis secundum quod aliquid recedit a permanentia essendi, secundum hoc recedit ab aeternitate. Quaedam autem sic recedunt a permanentia essendi, quod esse eorum est subjectum transmutationis, vel in transmutatiose consistit; et hujusmodi mensurantur tempore, sicut omnis motus, et etiam esse omnium corruptibilium. Quaedam vero recedunt minus a permanentia essendi, quia esse eorum nec in transmutatione consistit nec est subjectum transmutationis; tamen habent transmutationem adjunctam vel in actu vel in potentia ... patet de angelis, quod scilicet habent esse intransmutabile cum transmutabilitate secundum electionem, quantum ad eorum naturam pertinet, et cum transmutabilitate intelligentiarum, et affectionum, et locorum suo modo. Et ideo hujusmodi mensurantur aevo, quod est medium inter aeternitatem et tempus. Esse autem quod mensurat aeternitas, nec est mutabile nec mutabilitati adjunctum. Sic ergo tempus habet prius et posterius, aevum non habet in se prius et posterius, sed ei conjungi possunt; aeternitas autem non habet prius neque posterius, neque ea compatitur.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. x., art. 5, in c.390.pp. 517-57.391.Invisibilia enim ipsius a creatura mundi, per ea quae facta sunt intellecta, conspiciuntur, sempiterna quoque ejus virtus et divinitas, ita ut [qui veritatem Dei in injustitia detinent] sint inexcusabiles.—Rom. ii. 20 [18].392.Cf. Maher, Psychology (4th edit.), pp. 90-2.393.For a clear and trenchant criticism of modern relativist theories, cf. Veitch, Knowing and Being, especially ch. iv., “Relation,” pp. 129 sqq.394.Cf. Mercier, op. cit., §§ 179-80.395.Principles of Psychology, P. ii., ch. iii., § 88.396.Cf. Maher, Psychology, pp. 157-9.397.“We cannot of course perceive an unperceived world, nor can we conceive a world the conception of which is not in the mind; but there is no contradiction or absurdity in the proposition: ‘A material world of three dimensions has existed for a time unperceived and unthought of by any created being, and then revealed itself to human minds’.”—Maher, Psychology, p. iii, n.398.“I do not pretend to demonstrate anything, nor do I feel much concern, about any unknowable noumenon which never reveals itself in my consciousness. If there be in existence an inscrutable ‘transcendental Ego,’ eternally screened from my ken by this self-asserting ‘empirical Ego,’ I confess I feel very little interest in the nature or the welfare of the former. The only soul about which I care is that which immediately presents itself in its acts, which thinks, wills, remembers, believes, loves, repents, and hopes.”—Maher, op. cit., p. 475. Cf. Mercier, op. cit., § 180, pp. 363.399.Πρός τι δὲ τὰ τοιαῦτα λέγεται, ὅσα αὐτά, ἄπερ ἐστὶν, ἑτέρων εἶναι λέγεται, ἢ ὁπωσοῦν ἄλλως πρὸς ἕτερον.—Categ. v. 1.400.I Sentent., Dist. xxvi., q. 2, art. 1.401.«Sicut realis relatio consistit in ordine rei ad rem, ita relatio rationis consistit in ordine intellectuum [упорядочение концептов]; quod quidem dupliciter potest contingere. Uno modo secundum quod iste ordo est adinventus per intellectum, et attributus ei, quod relative dicitur; et hujusmodi sunt relationes quae attribuuntur ab intellectu rebus intellectis, prout sunt intellectae, sicut relatio generis et speciei; has enim relationes ratio adinvenit considerando ordinem ejus, quod est in intellectu ad res, quae sunt extra, vel etiam ordinem intellectuum ad invicem. Alio modo secundum quod hujusmodi relationes consequuntur modum intelligendi, videlicet quod intellectus intelligit aliquid in ordine ad aliud; licet illum ordinem intellectus non adinveniat, sed magis ex quadam necessitate consequatur modum intelligendi. Et hujusmodi relationes intellectus non attribuit ei, quod est in intellectu, sed ei, quod est in re. Et hoc quidem contingit secundum quod aliqua non habentia secundum se ordinem, ordinate intelliguntur; licet intellectus non intelligit ea habere ordinem, quia sic esset falsus. Ad hoc autem quod aliqua habeant ordinem, oportet quod utrumque sit ens, et utrumque ordinabile ad aliud. Quandoque autem intellectus accipit aliqua duo ut entia, quorum alterum tantum vel neutrum est ens; sicut cum accipit duo futura, vel unum praesens et aliud futurum, et intelligit unum cum ordine ad aliud, dicit alterum esse prius altero; unde istae relationes sunt rationis tantum, utpote modum intelligendi consequentes. Quandoque vero accipit unum ut duo, et intelligit ea cum quodam ordine; sicut cum dicitur aliquid esse idem sibi: et sic talis relatio est rationis tantum. Quandoque vero accipit aliqua duo ut ordinabilia ad invicem, inter quae non est ordo medius, immo alterum ipsorum essentialiter est ordo; sicut cum dicit relationem accidere subjecto; unde talis relatio relationis ad quodcumque aliud est rationis tantum. Quandoque vero accipit aliquid cum ordine ad aliud, inquantum est terminus ordinis alterius ad ipsum, licet ipsum non ordinetur ad aliud: sicut accipiendo scibile ut terminum ordinis scientiae ad ipsum.» — De Potentia, q. vii., art. 11; ср. ibid. art. 10.

«Cum relatio requirit duo extrema, tripliciter se habet ad hoc quod sit res naturae aut rationis. Quandoque enim ex utraque parte est res rationis tantum, quando scilicet ordo vel habitudo non potest esse inter aliqua nisi secundum apprehensionem intellectus tantum, utpote cum dicimus idem eidem idem. Nam secundum quod ratio apprehendit bis aliquod unum statuit illud ut duo; et sic apprehendit quandam habitudinem ipsius ad seipsum. Et similiter est de omnibus relationibus quae sunt inter ens et non ens, quas format ratio, inquantum apprehendit non ens ut quoddam extremum. Et idem est de omnibus relationibus quae consequuntur actum rationis, ut genus, species, et hujusmodi....» — Summa Theol., i., q. xiii., art. 7. 402.Summa Theol.,1. q. xiii. art. 7. Elsewhere he points the distinction in these terms: “Respectus ad aliud aliquando est in ipsa natura rerum, utpote quando aliquae res secundum suam naturam ad invicem ordinatae sunt, et ad invicem inclinationem habent; et hujusmodi relationes oportet esse reales.... Aliquando vero respectus significatus per ea, quae dicuntur Ad aliquid, est tantum in ipsa apprehensione rationis conferentis unum alteri; et tunc est relatio rationis tantum, sicut cum comparat ratio hominem animali, ut speciem ad genus.”—ibid., q. xxviii., art. 1.403.St. Thomas gives expression to it in these sentences: “Perfectio et bonum quae sunt in rebus extra animam, non solum attenduntur secundum aliquid absolute inhaerens rebus, sed etiam secundum ordinem unius rei ad aliam; sicut etiam in ordine partium exercitus, bonum exercitus consistit: huic enim ordini comparat Philosophus [Aristot., xii. (x.) Metaph., Comment. 52 sqq.] ordinem universi. Oportet, ergo in ipsis rebus ordinem quemdam esse; hic autem ordo relatio quaedam est.... Sic ergo oportet quod res habentes ordinem ad aliquid, realiter referantur ad ipsum, et quod in eis aliqua res sit relatio.”—QQ. Disp. De Potentia, q. vii., art. 9.404.Kritik der reinen Vernunft, bk. i., Hauptst. ii., Abschn. ii., § 26.405.Logic, bk. i., ch. iii., § 10.406.L'Idée du phénomène, p. 181—apud Mercier, op. cit., § 173.407.“Quaedam vero relationes sunt quantum ad utrumque extremum res naturae, quando scilicet est habitudo inter aliqua duo secundum aliquid realiter conveniens utrique; sicut patet de omnibus relationibus quae consequuntur quantitatem, ut magnum et parvum, duplum et dimidium, et hujusmodi; nam quantitas est in utroque extremorum: et simile est de relationibus quae consequuntur actionem et passionem, ut motivum et mobile, pater et filius, et similia.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. xiii., art. 7.408.“Quandoque vero relatio in uno extremorum est res naturae, et in altero est res rationis tantum: et hoc contingit quandocunque duo extrema non sunt unius ordinis; sicut sensus et scientia referuntur ad sensibile et scibile; quae quidem, inquantum sunt res quaedam in esse naturale existentes, sunt extra ordinem esse sensibilis et intelligibilis. Et ideo in scientia quidem et sensu est relatio realis, inquantum ordinantur ad sciendum vel sentiendum res; sed res ipsae in se consideratae sunt extra ordinem hujusmodi; unde in eis non est aliqua relatio realiter ad scientiam et sensum, sed secundum rationem tantum, inquantum intellectus apprehendit ea ut terminos relationum scientiae et sensus. Unde Philosophus dicit in 5 Metaph., text. 20, quod non dicuntur relative, eo quod ipsa referantur ad alia, sed quia alia referantur ad ipsa.”—ibid.409.Being really and adequately identical with its foundation, which is the essence of its subject, this relation does not necessarily need the actual existence of its term. Thus actual knowledge or science, which is a habit of the mind, has a transcendental relation to its object even though this latter be not actual but only a pure possibility. Similarly the accident of quantity sustained without its connatural substance in the Eucharist, retains its transcendental relation to the latter.—Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 335 (p. 997).410.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 336 (p. 990).411.Metaph., L. v., ch. xv. Cf. St. Thomas, in loc., lect. 17, where, approving of this triple division, he writes: “Cum enim relatio quae est in rebus, consistat in ordine unius rei ad aliam, oportet tot modis hujusmodi relationes esse, quot modis contingit unam rem ad aliam ordinari. Ordinatur autem una res ad aliam, vel secundum esse, prout esse unius rei dependet ab alia, et sic est tertius modus. Vel secundum virtutem activam et passivam, secundum quod una res ab alia recipit, vel alteri confert aliquid; et sic est secundus modus. Vel secundum quod quantitas unius rei potest mensurari per aliam; et sic est primus modus.”412.Cf. Mercier, op. cit., § 175. For transcendental and predicamental unity, cf. supra, §§ 26, 28.413.Cf. infra, p. 355. Some authors hold that the relation in question is predicamental. Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., p. 987. The nature or essence of any individual would seem to imply in its very concept a transcendental relation of specific identity with all other actual and possible individual embodiments of this essence. The point is one of secondary importance.414.Even virtually, though not formally. The creative act is not formally transitive; it is virtually so: and in the creature it grounds the latter's relation of real dependence on the Creator.415.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 336 (p. 989), § 341 (p. 1011); St. Thomas, iii. Sentent., Dist., viii., q. i., art. 5.416.Mercier, op. cit., § 175.417.Mercier, ibid.418.“Cum igitur Deus sit extra totum ordinem creaturae, et omnes creaturae ordinentur ad ipsum et non e converso; manifestum est quod creaturae realiter, referuntur ad ipsum Deum; sed in Deo non est aliqua realis relatio ejus ad creaturas, sed secundum rationem tantum, inquantum creaturae referantur ad ipsum.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. xiii., art. 7.419.Among others Cajetan, Ferriariensis, Capreolus, Bañez, Joannes a St. Thoma. Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 338 (p. 994); Mercier, op. cit., § 174. It would be interesting to know how precisely those authors conceived this “relative” entity, this “esse ad” as a reality independent of their own thought-activity. Cf. art. by the present writer in the Irish Theological Quarterly (vol. vii., April, 1912: “Reflections on some Forms of Monism,” pp. 167-8): “The whole universe of direct experience displays a unity of order or design which pervades it through and through; it is a revelation of intelligent purpose. Now a Cosmos, an orderly universe—which is intelligible only as the expression of intelligent purpose, and not otherwise—is a system of interrelated factors. But relating is unintelligible except as an expression of the activity of mind or spirit, that is, of something at least analogous to our mental activity of comparing and judging. Scholastic philosophers, as we know, discuss the question whether or how far the exact object of our ‘relation’ concept is real; that is, whether this object is, in itself and apart from the terms related [and the foundation], a mere ens rationis, a product of our thought, or whether it is in itself something more than this; and some of them hold that there are relations which, in themselves and formally as relations, are something more than mere products of our thought. Now if there be such relations, since they are not products of our thought, we may fairly ask: Must they be the product of some thought? And from our analysis of our very notion of what a relation is, it would seem that they must be in some sort or other a product or expression of some thought-activity: even relations between material things. It is in determining how precisely this is, or can be, that the theist and the monist differ. The theist regards all material things, with their real relations—and all our finite human minds, which apprehend the material world and its relations and themselves and one another—as being indeed in a true sense terms or objects of the Thought of God; not, however, as therefore identical or consubstantial with the Divine Spirit, but as distinct from It though dependent on It: inasmuch as he holds the Divine Thought to be creative, and regards all these things as its created terms. The kinship he detects between matter and spirit lies precisely in this, that matter is for him a created term of the Divine Thought. For him too, therefore, matter can have no existence except as a term of thought—the creative Thought of God.” Not that “the intelligible relations apprehended by us in matter are ... identical in reality with the thought-activity of the Divine Mind,” as Ontologists have taught [cf. supra, 14, 18, 19]; nor that we can directly infer the existence of a Supreme Spirit from the existence of matter, as Berkeley tried to do by erroneously regarding the latter merely as an essentially mind-dependent phenomenon; because “for the orthodox theist matter is in its own proper nature not spiritual, mental, psychical; not anything after the manner of a thought-process, or endowed with the spirit-mode of being”. If predicamental relations, such as quality or similarity of material things, are, as those medieval scholastics contended, real entities, “relative” in their nature, and really distinct from their extremes and foundations, did those scholastics conceive such “relative entities” as essentially mind-dependent entities? If they did they would probably have conceived them in the sense of Berkeley, as created terms of the Divine Thought, rather than in the Ontologist sense which would identify them with the Divine Thought itself. But it is not likely that they conceived such relative entities as essentially thought-dependent, any more than the absolute material realities related to one another by means of these relative entities. On the other hand it is not easy to see how such relative entities can be anything more than mere products of some thought-activity or other.420.They rely especially on this text from the De Potentia (q. vii., art. 9): “Relatio est debilioris esse inter omnia praedicamenta; ideo putaverunt quidam eam esse ex secundis intellectibus. Secundum ergo hanc positionem sequeretur quod relatio non sit in rebus extra animam sed in solo intellectu, sicut intentio generis et speciei, et secundarum substantiarum. Hoc autem esse non potest. In nullo enim praedicamento ponitur aliquid nisi res praeter animam existens. Nam ens rationis dividitur contra ens divisum per decem praedicamenta.... Si autem relatio non est in rebus extra animam non poneretur ad aliquid unum genus praedicamenti.”421.Cf. St. Anselm, Monolog., ch. xxvi.422.“Relatio habet quod sit res naturae ex sua causa per quam una res naturalem ordinem habet ad alteram.”—Quodl. 1, art. 2.423.“In hoc differt Ad Aliquid [i.e. Relation] ab aliis generibus; quod alia genera ex propria sui ratione habent, quod aliquid sint, sicut quantitas ex hoc ipso quod est quantitas, aliquid ponit: et similiter est de aliis. Sed Ad Aliquid ex propria sui generis ratione non habet, quod ponat aliquid, sed ad aliquid.... Habet autem relatio quod sit aliquid reale ex eo, quod relationem causat.”—Quodl. 9, art. 4. Cf. De Potentia, q. ii., art. 5.424.“Relatio est aliquid inhaerens licet non ex hoc ipso quod est relatio.... Et ideo nihil prohibet, quod esse desinat hujusmodi accidens sine mutatione ejus in quo est.”—De Potentia, q. vii., art. 9, ad. 7.425.“Et utroque modo contingit in realibus relationibus destrui relationem: vel per destructionem quantitatis [or other foundation], unde ad hanc mutationem quantitatis sequitur per accidens mutatio relationis: vel etiam secundum quod cessat respectus ad alterum, remoto illo ad quod referebatur; et tunc relatio cessat, nulla mutatione facta in ipsa. Unde in illis in quibus non est relatio nisi secundum hunc respectum, veniunt et recedunt relationes sine aliqua mutatione ejus, quod refertur.”—In i. Sent., Dist. xxvi., q. ii., art. 1, ad. 3.426.“Relationes differunt in hoc ab omnibus aliis rerum generibus, quia ea quae sunt aliorum generum, ex ipsa ratione sui generis habent, quod sint res naturae, sicut quantitates ex ratione quantitatis, et qualitates ex ratione qualitatis. Sed relationes non habent quod sint res naturae ex ratione respectus ad alterum.... Sed relatio habet quod sit res naturae ex sua causa, per quam una res naturalem ordinem habet ad alteram, qui quidem ordo naturalis et realis est ipsis ipsa relatio.”—Quodl., 1, art. 2.427.Cf. supra, p. 351, n. 1; in which context we may reasonably suppose him to be arguing that relation considered adequately is not a mere logical entity, “ex secundis intellectibus,” inasmuch as, having a real foundation in things outside the mind, it is in this respect real, independently of our thought.428.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 341 (p. 1008).429.ibid., p. 1007; cf. supra, p. 347.430.In i. Sentent., Dist. iv., q. 1, art. 1, ad. 3.431.Cf. Urraburu, ibid., pp. 1006-7: “Deinde nullam relationem esse substantiam scripsit [S. Thomas] vel quia plerumque ratio fundandi non est substantia ... vel potius quia semper relatio, etiam cum in substantia fundatur, aliquid addit supra substantiam cujuslibet extremi relati singillatim sumpti, quia non identificatur cum fundamento prout se tenet ex parte solius subjecti, vel solius termini, sed prout se tenet ea parte utriusque. Quare relatio ... semper exprimit denominationem contingentem et accidentaliter supervenientem subjecto, utpote quae adesse vel abesse potest, prout adsit vel deficiat terminus.”432.“Illi enim [the reference is to certain medieval idealists] quamvis agnoscerent duo alba existentia negabant dari actu in rebus formalem similaritatem [i.e. even after the comparative activity of thought], sed formalem similitudinem, et aliam quamvis relationem, reponebant in actu intellectus unum cum alio comparantis; nos vero ante actum intellectus agnoscimus in rebus, quidquid sufficit ad constituendam relationem similitudinis, diversitatis, paternitatis, etc., ita ut hujusmodi denominationes non verificentur de actu intellectus unum cum alio comparantis, sed plenam habeant in rebus ipsis verificationem.”—Urraburu, op. cit., p. 1010.433.In what sense “extramental”?—Cf. supra, p. 350, n. 1 (end).434.Cf. Science of Logic, ii., § 218. For the concepts of “cause” and “causality” in the inductive sciences, as well as for much that cannot be repeated here, the student may consult with advantage vol. ii., p. iv., ch. iii., iv. and vi. of the work referred to.435.“Id a quo aliquid procedit quocunque modo.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. xxxiii., art. 1.436.Hence Aristotle's definition of principle, including both logical and real principles: Πασῶν μὲν οὖν κοινὸν τῶν ἀρχῶν τὸ πρῶτον εἶναι ὅθεν ἡ ἐστιν ἢ γίγνεται ἢ γιγνώσκεται.—Metaph. IV., ch. i.437.A cause must be prior in nature to its effect, but not necessarily prior in time. In fact the action of the cause and the production of the effect must be simultaneous. Cf. Science of Logic, ii., § 220. Considered formally as correlatives they are simul natura. A principle must likewise be in some sense prior to what proceeds from it, not necessarily, however, by priority of time, nor by priority of nature involving real dependence. The Christian Revelation regarding the Blessed Trinity involves that the First Divine Person is the “principle” from which the Second proceeds, and the First and the Second the “principle” from which the Third proceeds; yet here there is no dependence or inequality, or any priority except the “relation of origin” be called priority.438.Cf. Science of Logic, ii., § 216.439.Cf. Science of Logic, i., § 16; ii., §§ 214, 224 (p. 113).440.Cf. Mercier, op. cit., § 252.441.Cf. Physic., Lib. ii., cap. 3; Metaph., Lib. i., cap. 3; v., cap. 2.442.i.e. from the effect considered formally as a term of the activity; in the case of immanent activity, as, e.g. thought or volition, where the effect remains within the agent (as a verbum mentale or other mental term), uniting with the concrete reality of the latter, the effect is not adequately distinct from the agent as affected by this term or product.443.Cf. St. Thomas, In Physic., ii., lect. 10: “Necesse est quatuor esse causas: quia cum causa sit, ad quam sequitur esse alterius, esse ejus quod habet causam potest considerari dupliciter: uno modo absolute, et sic causa essendi est forma per quam aliquid est ens in actu; alio modo secundum quod de potentia ente fit actu ens: et quia omne quod est in potentia, reducitur ad actum per id quod est actu ens, ex hoc necesse est esse duas alias causas, scilicet materiam, et agentem quod reducit materiam de potentia in actum. Actio autem agentis ad aliquod determinatum tendit, sicut ab aliquo determinato principio procedit; nam omne agens agit quod est sibi conveniens. Id autem ad quod intendit actio agentis dicitur causa finalis. Sic igitur necesse est esse causas quatuor.”444.Cf. Mercier, op. cit., §§ 247-8.445.Certain medieval scholastics, especially of the Franciscan School, regarded spiritual substances as having in their constitution a certain potential, determinable principle, which they called “materia”. St. Thomas, without objecting to the designation, insisted that such potential principle cannot be the same as the materia prima of corporeal substances (cf. De Substantis Separatis, ch. vii.).446.Cf. St. Thomas: “Actio est actus activi et passio est actus passivi” (iii. Physic., l. 5); “Materia non fit causa in actu nisi secundum quod alteratur et mutatur” (i. Contra Gentes, xvii.); “Materia est causa formae, inquantum forma non est nisi in materia” (De Princip. Naturae).447.Cf. St. Thomas, De Princip. Naturae, ibid.: “... et similiter forma est causa materiae, inquantum materia non habet esse in actu nisi per formam; materia enim et forma dicuntur relative ad invicem; dicuntur etiam relative ad compositum, sicut pars ad totum”.448.“Materia cum sit infinitarum formarum determinatur per formam, et per eam consequitur aliquam speciem.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i.