«Онтология, или Теория бытия»

1.2 vols. Longmans, 1912.2.Institutions Metaphysica, quas Roma, in Pontificia Universitate Gregoriana tradiderat P. Joannes Josephus Urraburu, S.J. Volumen Secundum: Ontologia (Rome, 1891).3.French version by Sierp, 4 vols. Paris, Gaume, 1868.4.Ontologie, ou Métaphysique Générale, par D. Mercier. Louvain, 3me édit., 1902.5.Τὴν ὀνομαζομένην σοφίαν περὶ τὰ πρῶτα αἴτια καὶ τὰς ὑπολαμβάνουσι πάντες.—Aristotle, Metaph., I., 1. “Sapientia [philosophia] est scientia quae considerat primas et universales causas.”—St. Thomas, In Metaph., I., I. 2.6.Cf. De Wulf, Scholasticism Old and New, pp. 59-61, 191-4; History of Medieval Philosophy, pp. 311-13; also two articles in the Irish Ecclesiastical Record (March and May, 1906) on Thoughts on Philosophy and Religion, and an article in the Irish Theological Quarterly (October, 1910) on Philosophy and Sectarianism in Belfast University, by the present writer.7.Cf. Encyclical Aeterni Patris, on Philosophical Studies, by Pope Leo XIII., August 4,1880.8.Introduction, § 1.9.As a brief general statement of the matter this is sufficiently accurate and will not be misunderstood. Of course the general standpoint of ultimate causes and reasons admits within itself some variety of aspects. Thus Epistemology and Psychology deal with human thought, but under different aspects; Psychology and Ethics deal with human volition, but under different aspects, etc.10.“Theoreticus sive speculativis intellectus, in hoc proprie ab operativo sive practico distinguitur, quod speculativus habet pro fine veritatem quam considerat, practicus autem veritatem consideratam ordinat in operationem tamquam in finem; et ideo differunt ab invicem fine; finis speculativae est veritas, finis operativae sive practicae actio.”—St. Thomas, In lib. Boetii de Trinitate.11.Here is St. Thomas' exposition and justification of the doctrine in the text: “Sapientis est ordinare. Cujus ratio est, quia sapientia est potissima perfectio rationis, cujus proprium est cognoscere ordinem.... Ordo autem quadrupliciter ad rationem comparatatur. Est enim quidam ordo quem ratio non facit, sed solum considerat, sicut est ordo rerum naturalium. Alius autem est ordo, quem ratio considerando facit in proprio actu, puta cum ordinat conceptus suos ad invicem, et signa conceptuum, quae sunt voces significativae. Tertius autem est quem ratio considerando facit in operationibus voluntatis. Quartus autem est ordo quem ratio considerando facit in exterioribus rebus, quarum ipsa est causa, sicut in arca et domo. Et quia consideratio rationis per habitum perficitur, secundum hos diversos ordines quos proprie ratio considerat, sunt diversae scientiae. Nam ad philosophiam naturalem pertinet considerare ordinem rerum quem ratio humana considerat sed non facit; ita quod sub naturali philosophia comprehendamus et metaphysicam. Ordo autem quem ratio considerando facit in proprio actu, pertinet ad rationalem philosophiam, cujus est considerare ordinem partium orationis ad invicem et ordinem principiorum ad invicem et ad conclusiones. Ordo autem actionum voluntariarum pertinet ad considerationem moralis philosophiae. Ordo autem quem ratio considerando facit in rebus exterioribus constitutis per rationem humanam, pertinet ad artes mechanicas.”—In X. Ethic. ad Nichom., i., lect. 1.12.Cf. Science of Logic, i., Introduction, ch. ii. and iii.13.Aristotle and the scholastics distinguished between the domain of the practical (πρᾶσσω, πρᾶξις, agere, agibilia) and the operative or productive (ποιεῖν, ποίησις, facere, factibilia).14.Cf. Science of Logic, i., § 8.15.“Quædam igitur sunt speculabilium quæ dependent a materia secundum esse, quia non nisi in materia esse possunt, et hæc distinguuntur quia dependent quædam a materia secundum esse et intellectum, sicut illa in quorum definitione ponitur materia sensibilis: unde sine materia sensibili intelligi non possunt; ut in definitione hominis oportet accipere carnem et ossa: et de his est physica sive scientia naturalis. Quædam vero sunt quæ, quamvis dependeant a materia sensibili secundum esse, non tamen secundum intellectum, quia in eorum definitionibus non ponitur materia sensibilis, ut linea et numerus: et de his est mathematica. Quædam vero sunt speculabilia quæ non dependent a materia secundum esse, quia sine materia esse possunt: sive nunquam sint in materia, sicut Deus et angelus, sive in quibusdam sint in materia et in quibusdam non, ut substantia, qualitas, potentia et actus, unum et multa, etc., de quibus omnibus est theologia, id est scientia divina, quia præcipuum cognitorum in ea est Deus. Alio nomine dicitur metaphysica, id est, transphysica, quia post physicam dicenda occurrit nobis, quibus ex sensibilibus competit in insensibilia devenire. Dicitur etiam philosophia prima, in quantum scientiae aliæ ab ea principia sua accipientes eam sequuntur.”—St. Thomas, In lib. Boetii de Trinitate, q. 5, a. 1.16.Ἐττιν ἐπιστήμη τις ἤ θεωοεῖ τὸ ὄν και τούτῳ ὑπάρχοντα καθ᾽ ἁυτό.—Metaph. III., i (ed. Didot).17.Metaph. X., ch. vii., 5 and 6.18.Cf. Science of Logic, ii., §§ 251-5.19.When the term “science” is used nowadays in contradistinction to “philosophy,” it usually signifies the knowledge embodied in what are called the special, or positive, or inductive sciences—a knowledge which Aristotle would not regard as strictly or fully scientific.20.Aristotle's conception of the close relation between Physics (or the Philosophy of Nature) and those analytic studies which we nowadays describe as the physical sciences, bears witness to the close alliance which he conceived to exist between sense observation on the one hand and rational speculation on the other. This sane view of the continuity of human knowledge, a view to which the Schoolmen of the Middle Ages were ever faithful, was supplanted at the dawn of modern philosophy in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by the opposite view, which led to a divorce between physics and metaphysics, and to a series of misunderstandings which still prevail with equal detriment to science and philosophy alike.21.Cf. De Wulf, History of Medieval Philosophy, pp. 28-9, 66; Mercier, Ontologie, Introd., p. v., n.22.“Dicitur metaphysica [scientia] id est, transphysica, quia post physicam dicenda occurrit nobis, quibus ex sensibilibus competit in insensibilia devenire.”—St. Thomas, In Lib. Boetii de Trinitate, q. 5, a. 1.23.This is also the title of the social and ethnological study of the various races of men, their primitive habits, customs, institutions, etc.24.Not entirely; for instance, what is perhaps the most comprehensive course of philosophy published in recent times, the Philosophia Lacensis (11 vols., Herder, 1888-1900) apparently follows the arrangement of metaphysics outlined above. The fundamental questions on knowing and being, which usually constitute distinct departments under the respective titles of Epistemology and Ontology, are here treated under the comprehensive title of Institutiones Logicales (3 vols.). However, they are really metaphysical problems, problems of speculative philosophy, wherever they be treated; and the fact that the questions usually treated in Ontology are here treated in a volume apart (vol. iii. of the Institutiones Logicales: under the peculiar title of Logica Realis), and not in the volumes assigned to general metaphysics, shows the necessity and convenience of the more modern arrangement. General metaphysics are dealt with in 2 vols. of Institutiones Philosophiae Naturalis and 3 vols. of Institutiones Psychologicae; special metaphysics in the Institutiones Theodicœae (1 vol.); ethics in 2 vols. of Institutiones Juris Naturae.25.Cf. Turner, History of Philosophy, p. 525.26.Mercier, Logique, Introd., § 9.27.pp. 45, 51.28.Cf. Science of Logic, i., § 17.29.Cf. ibid. i., Introd., ch. i.30.Cajetan, In 2 Post Anal., ch. xiii.31.Cf. Mercier, Ontologie, §§ 6-13; Ladd, A Theory of Reality, ch. i.32.infra, ch. viii.; Cf. Science of Logic, ii., Part IV., ch. iii.-vi.; Part V., ch. i.33.p. 18—in which context will be found a masterly analysis and criticism of current prejudices and objections against systematic metaphysics.34.ibid. pp. 19-20.35.Royce, The Conception of God, p. 207.36.Mercier, Logique, Introd., § 14.37.Encyclical, Aeterni Patris, on philosophical studies.38.Summa Theologica, 1, q. 1, a. 8, ad. 2.39.Cf. Mercier, Origines de la psychologie contemporaine, ch. viii.; De Wulf, Scholasticism Old and New (passim).40.Cf. Ladd, op. cit., pp. 9, 10.41.Eucken, Gesammelte Aufsaetze zur Philosophie und Lebensanschauung, § 157 (Leipzig, 1903).42.Cf. art. Philosophy and the Sciences at Louvain, in the Irish Ecclesiastical Record, May, 1905, reprinted as Appendix in De Wulf's Scholasticism Old and New.43.Hence the necessity of equipping the student of philosophy with a knowledge of the main conclusions and theories of the sciences that have an immediate bearing on philosophy: chemistry, physics, geology, astronomy, mechanics, the axioms and postulates of pure and applied mathematics, cellular biology, embryology, the physiology of the nervous system, botany and zoology, political economy, sociology and ethnology. Nowhere is the system of combining the scientific with the philosophical formation of mind more thoroughly carried out at the present time than in the curriculum of the Philosophical Institute at the University of Louvain. In the College of Maynooth not only is the study of philosophy completed by a fuller course of Christian Theology,—both disciplines thus combining to give the student all the essential elements of a complete Philosophy of Life (ii.),—but it is preceded by an elementary training in the physical sciences and accompanied by courses on the history of scientific theories in chemistry, physics, physiology, and general biology.44.“We may mention it in passing,” writes Mercier in his general introduction to philosophy (Logique, § 1, p. 6)—“it was this feeling of individual impotence in face of the task confronting the philosopher at the present day, that inspired the foundation of the Philosophical Institute at the University of Louvain”. He had previously outlined the project in his Rapport sur les études philosophiques at the Congress of Mechlin in 1891. Here are a few brief extracts from that memorable document: “Since individual effort feels itself well nigh powerless in the presence of the field of observation which goes on widening day by day, association must make up for the insufficiency of the isolated worker; men of analysis and men of synthesis must come together and form, by their daily intercourse and united action, an atmosphere suited to the harmonious development of science and philosophy alike....” “Man has multiplied his power of vision; he enters the world of the infinitely small; he fixes his scrutinizing gaze upon regions where our most powerful telescopes discern no limits. Physics and Chemistry progress with giant strides in the study of the properties of matter and of the combinations of its elements. Geology and Astronomy reconstruct the history of the origin and formation of our planet. Biology and the natural sciences study the minute structure of living organisms, their distribution in space and succession in time; and Embryology explores their origin. The archæological, philological and social sciences reconstruct the past ages of our history and civilizations. What an inexhaustible mine is here to exploit, what regions to explore and materials to analyse and interpret; finally what pioneers we must engage in the work if we are to have a share in garnering those treasures!”45.Grammar of Assent, p. 229.46.Lucerna pedibus meis verbum tuum, et lumen semitis meis.—Ps. cxviii., 105.47.Tennyson, In Memoriam.48.Cf. Logic, i., § 123.49.Cf. Logic, i., pp. 204-6.50.Cf. Scotus, Summa Theologica, edit. by Montefortino (Rome, 1900), i., p. 106, Ad tertium.51.Cf. Logic, i., pp. 119-20.52.Cf. Scotus, op. cit., i., pp. 104, 129; also Urraburu, Ontologia, Disp. III., Cap. II., Art. III., p. 155.53.Hence St. Thomas calls the things about which a generic or specific concept is predicated “analoga secundum esse et non secundum intentionem” (In 1 Sent., Dist. xix., q. 5, a. 2, ad a am): we bring them under the same notion or “intentio” (e.g. “living being”), but the content of this notion is realized in the various things (e.g. in Socrates, this horse, that rose-tree, etc.) in varying and unequal degrees of perfection. Hence, too, this univocal relation of the genus to its subordinate subjects is sometimes (improperly) called “analogy of inequality”.54.Cf. infra, ch. viii.55.Cf. Kleutgen, Philosophie der Vorzeit, §§ 599, 600.56.This, of course, is the proper sort of analogical predication: the predication based upon similarity of proportions or relations. Etymologically, analogy means equality of proportions (Cf. Logic, ii., p. 160). On the whole subject the student may consult with profit Cajetan's Opusculum de Nominum Analogia, published as an appendix to vol. iv. of St. Thomas' Quæstiones Disputatæ in De Maria's edition (1883).57.Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., §§ 40-42.58.Cf. Scotus, op. cit., i., pp. 318-22, 125-131, 102-7 (especially p. 128, Ad tertium); p. 131, Ad sextum; p. 321, Ad tertium.59.Kleutgen, op. cit., § 599.60.ibid., § 600.61.Suarez, Metaph., Dist. xxviii., § 3; Dist. xxxii., § 2.62.Scotus, op. cit., i., pp. 106-7, 128-9.63.ibid., p. 107.64.Cf. Kleutgen, La philosophie scolastique (“Die Philosophie der Vorzeit”). Fr. trans. by Sierp (Paris, 1868), vol. i., p. 66, § 35.65.The logical copula, which expresses this relation and asserts the truth of the judgment, expresses, of course, a logical entity, an ens rationis. True judgments may be stated about logical entities as well as about realities. But since the former can be conceived only after the manner of the latter, the appropriateness of using the verb which expresses existence or reality, as the logical copula, will be at once apparent. Cf. Logic, i., p. 249, n. 1.66.Suarez, Metaph., Dist. 54, § i., 6.67.Cf. Logic, i., pp. 28-9.68.Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., §§ 551-2.69.Cf. Logic, i., pp. 70-1.70.“Esse actum quondam nominat: non enim dicitur esse aliquid ex hoc, quod est in potentia, sed ex hoc, quod est in actu.”—St. Thomas, Contra Gent. i., c. xxii., 4.71.Certain medieval philosophers had made the same mistake. St. Thomas points out their error frequently. Cf. Contra Gentes, i., c. xxvi: “Quia id, quod commune est, per additionem specificatur vel individuatur, æstimaverunt, divinum esse, cui nulla fit additio, non esse aliquid proprium, sed esse commune omnium: non considerantes, quod id, quod commune est, vel universale, sine additione esse non potest, sed sine additione consideratur. Non enim animal potest esse absque rationali vel irrationali differentia, quamvis sine his differentiis consideretur; licet enim cogitetur universale absque additione, non tamen absque receptibilitate additionis est. Nam si animali nulla differentia addi posset, genus non esset; et similiter est de omnibus aliis nominibus. Divinum autem esse est absque additione, non solum cogitatione, sed etiam in rerum natura; et non solum absque additione, sed absque receptibilitate additionis. Unde ex hoc ipso quod additionem non recipit, nec recipere potest, magis concludi potest quod Deus non sit esse commune, sed esse proprium. Etenim ex hoc ipso suum esse ab omnibus aliis distinguitur, quia nihil ei addi potest.”72.Cf. St. Thomas, QQ. DD. De Potentia, q. i. art. 1, ad. 18.73.Aristotle, Metaph., c. iv., v., apud Kleutgen, op. cit., iii., p. 60.74.Contra Gentes, II., c. vii.75.Cf. Laminne, Cause et Effet—Revue neo-scolastique, February, 1914, p. 38.76.St. Thomas uses what is for him strong language when he describes such a view as ridiculous: “Ridiculum est dicere quod ideo corpus non agat, quia accidens non transit de subjecto in subjectum; non enim hoc modo dicitur corpus calidum calefacere, quod idem numero calor, qui est in calefaciente corpore, transeat ad corpus calefactum; sed quia virtute caloris, qui est in calefaciente corpore, alius calor numero fit actu in corpore calefacto, qui prior erat in eo in potentia. Agens enim naturale non est traducens propriam formam in alterum subjectum, sed reducens subjectum quod patitur de potentia in actum.”—Contra Gentes, L. III., c. lxix.77.Cf. Zigliara, Ontologia (8), ix., Quintum. Cf. also Aristotle, Metaph. v., St. Thomas, In Metaph., v., § 14, and Contra Gentes, i., c. xvi., where he emphasizes the truth that potential being presupposes actual being: “Quamvis id quod quandoque est in potentia, quandoque in actu, prius sit tempore in potentia quam in actu, tamen simpliciter actus est prior potentia; quia potentia non educit se in actum, sed opportet quod educatur in actum per aliquid quod sit in actu. Omne igitur quod est aliquo modo in potentia, habet aliquid prius se”.78.Klimke, Der Monismus und seine philosophischen Grundlagen, p. 185. Cf. Irish Theological Quarterly, vol. vii. (April, 1912), p. 157 sqq., art. Reflections on Some Forms of Monism.79.For relations of potentia and actus, cf. Mercier, Ontologie, § 214.80.Cf. Physics, v., 1; De Anima, i., 3.81.Λεγώ δ᾽ ὕλην, ἢ καθ᾽ ἁυτὴν μήτε τὶ, μήτε ποσὸν, μήτε ποίον, μήτε ἄλλο μεδὲν λέγεται οἶς ὤρισται τὸ ὄν.—Metaph. vi., c. iii.82.“Decepit antiquos philosophos hanc rationem inducentes, ignorantia formae substantialis. Non enim adhuc tantum profecerant ut intellectus eorum se elevaret ad aliquid quod est supra sensibilia: et ideo illas formas tantum consideraverunt, quæ sunt sensibilia propria vel communia. Hujusmodi autem manifestum est esse accidentia, ut album et nigrum, magnum et parvum, et hujusmodi. Forma autem substantialis non est sensibilis nisi per accidens, et ideo ad ejus cognitionem non bervenerunt, ut scirent ipsam materiam distinguere.”—In Metaph. vii., 2.83.“Esse actum quemdam nominat: non enim dicitur esse aliquid, ex hoc quod est in potentia, sed ex hoc quod est in actu.”—St. Thomas, Contra Gentes, i., ch. xxii., 4.84.The etymology of Aristotle's description of the essence as τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι is not easy to explain. The expression τὸ εἶναι supposes a dative understood, e.g. τὸ ἀνθρώπῳ εἶναι, the being proper to man. To the question τὶ ἐστι τὸ ἀνθρώπῳ εἶναι; what is the being or essence proper to man? the answer is: that which gives the definition of man, that which explains what he is—τί ἦν. Is the imperfect, τὶ ἦν, an archaic form for the present, τὶ ἐστι; or is it a deliberate suggestion of the profound doctrine that the essence as ideal, or possible, is anterior to its actual, physical realization? Commentators are not agreed. Cf. Matthias Kappes, Aristoteles-Lexicon, p. 25 (Paderborn, 1894); Mercier, Ontologie, p. 30 n.85.Essentia est illud per quod res constituitur in proprio genere vel specie, et quod significamus per definitionem indicantem quid est res.—De Ente et Essentia, ch. i.86.Aristotle, Metaph., v., 4; St. Thomas, De Potentia Dei, q. ix., art. 1.87.Sometimes, however, the expression “metaphysical essence” is used to signify those objective concepts, and those only, without which the thing cannot be conceived, (or sometimes, even the one which is considered most fundamental among these), and therefore as not explicitly involving the concepts of properties which follow necessarily from the former; while the “physical essence” is understood to signify all those real elements without which the thing cannot actually exist, including, therefore, all such necessary properties. Taken in this sense the physical essence of man would include not merely soul and body, but also such properties as the capacity of speech, of laughter, of using tools, of cooking food, etc.88.Et ex hoc patet ratio, writes St. Thomas, quare genus et species et differentia se habeant proportionaliter ad materiam, formam et compositum in natura, quamvis non sint idem cum illis; quia neque genus est materia, sed sumitur a materia ut significans totum; nec differentia est forma, sed sumitur a forma ut significans totum. Unde dicimus hominem esse animal rationale, et non ex animali et rationali; sicut dicimus eum esse ex corpore et anima. Ex corpore enim et anima dicitur esse homo, sicut ex duabus rebus quædam tertia res constituta, quæ neutra illarum est: homo enim nec est anima neque corpus; sed si homo aliquo modo ex animali et rationali dicatur esse, non erit sicut res tertia ex duabus rebus sed sicut intellectus [conceptus] tertius ex duobus intellectibus. Intellectus enim animalis est sine determinatione formae specialis naturam exprimens rei, ex eo quod est materiale respectu ultimae perfectionis. Intellectus autem hujus differentiae, rationalis, consistit in determinatione formae specialis: ex quibus duobus intellectibus constituitur intellectus speciei vel definitionis. Et ideo sicut res constituta ex aliquibus non recipit prædicationem earum rerum ex quibus constituitur; ita nec intellectus recipit prædicationem eorum intellectuum ex quibus constituitur; non enim dicimus, quod definitio sit genus vel differentia.—De Ente et Essentia, cap. iii.89.Cf. Mercier, Psychologie, vol. ii., § 169 (6th edit., 1903, pp. 24-5).90.Cf. Aristotle, Metaph., L. viii., 10; St. Thomas, In viii., Metaph., Lect. iii., par. i.91.Cf. Mercier, Ontologie, pp. 42-3. How do we know that not only water (H2O) is a possible essence but also hydrogen di-oxide (H2O2)? Because the latter substance has been actually formed by chemists (Cf. Roscoe, Elementary Chemistry, Lesson VI.). Is hydrogen tri-oxyde (H2O3) a possible substance? We may ask chemists,—and they may not be able to tell us with any certainty whether it is or not.92.The actual existence of a thinking mind is of course a necessary condition, in the actual order, for the apprehension of objects in this abstract way. But such existence is no part of the apprehended object. That the human mind, which is itself finite, contingent, allied with matter, and dependent on the activity of corporeal sense organs for the objects of its knowledge, should nevertheless have the power to apprehend contingent realities apart from their contingent actual existence in time and space,—is a fact of the greatest significance as regards the nature of the mind itself. But if we try to prove the existence of God from a consideration of the nature and powers of the human mind, our argument proceeds from the actual, and is distinct from any argument based exclusively on the nature and properties of possible essences as such. St. Augustine's argument assumes as a fact that the human mind represents to itself possible essences as having reality independently both of its own thought and of any actual existence of such essences (Cf. De Munnynck, Praelectiones de Dei Existentia, p. 23). But is this a fact? This is the really debatable point.93.Among others Henry of Ghent († 1293; Cf. De Wulf, History of Medieval Philosophy, pp. 364-6; Kleutgen, Philosophie der Vorzeit, Dissert, vi., cap. ii., 2 §§ 581-5), Capreolus (1380-1444), certain Scotists, and certain theosophists of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, are credited with this peculiar view. For numerous references, Cf. Urraburu, Ontologia, Disp. iii., cap. ii., art. v. pp. 650-63.94.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., pp. 652-3, for references; among others, to St. Thomas, De Potentia, q. 3, art. 1, ad 2um; art. 7, ad 10um; art. 5, argum. 2o; ibid., ad 2um. Summa Theol., i., q. 14, art. 9; q. 45, art. 1; ibid. , art. 2, ad 2um; q. 61, art. 2, corp.95.Among others, Balmes (Fundamental Philosophy, bk. iv., ch. xxvi.), Lepidi (Ontologia, quoted by De Munynck, Praelectiones de Dei Existentia, Louvain, 1904, p. 19); De Munynck (ibid., pp. 19-23, 46-7, 75); Hickey (Theologia Naturalis, pp. 31-4); Driscoll (God, pp. 72 sqq.); Lacordaire (God, p. 21); Kleutgen, Philosophie der Vorzeit, Dissert. iv., § 476.96.Truth is not the work of any human intelligence, says St. Augustine, nor can any one arrogate to himself the right to say “my truth,” or “thy truth,” but all must say simply “the truth”: “Quapropter, nullo modo negaveris esse incommutabilem veritatem, haec omnia, quae incommutabiliter vera sunt, continentem, quam non possis dicere vel tuam vel meam, vel cujuscumque hominis, sed omnibus incommutabilia vera cernentibus, tamquam miris modis secretum et publicum lumen, praesto esse ac se praebere communiter: omne autem quod communiter omnibus ratiocinantibus atque intelligentibus praesto est, ad ullius eorum proprie naturam pertinere quis dixerit?”—De Libero Arbitrio, lib. ii., ch. xii. Cf. his striking expression of the same thought in his Commentary, Super Genesim ad Litteram, lib. ii., cap. vii.: “We may conceive the heavens and the earth, that were created in six days, ceasing to exist; but can we conceive the number ‘six’ ceasing to be the sum of six units?”: “Facilius coelum et terra transire possunt, quae secundum numerum senarium fabricata sunt, quam effici possit ut senarius numerus suis partibus non compleatur” (apud Mercier, Ontologie, pp. 35-6).97.Ср. Бальмес («Фундаментальная философия», кн. iv., гл. xxvi.), который, анализируя истинность суждения «Два круга равных диаметров равны» как пример необходимых, вечных, неизменных характеристик возможных сущностей, доходит до того, что пишет (курсив наш): «Что произошло бы, если бы, устранив все тела, все чувственные представления и даже все разумы, мы представили бы абсолютное и универсальное ничто? Мы видим истинность этого суждения даже при таком предположении: ибо для нас невозможно считать его ложным. При любом предположении наш рассудок видит связь, которую он не может разрушить: условие однажды установлено, результат последует безошибочно.

«Абсолютно необходимая связь, основанная ни на нас, ни на внешнем мире, которая существует до всего, что мы можем вообразить, и сохраняется после того, как мы уничтожили все усилием нашего рассудка, должна быть основана на чем-то, она не может иметь ничто своим источником: сказать это значило бы утверждать необходимый факт без достаточного основания.

«Правда, в суждении, которое сейчас перед нами, ничего реального не утверждается, но если мы внимательно поразмыслим, мы найдем даже здесь величайшую трудность для тех, кто отрицает реальное основание чистой возможности. Что примечательно в этом явлении, так это именно то, что наш рассудок чувствует себя вынужденным дать свое согласие на суждение, которое утверждает абсолютно необходимую связь без всякого отношения к существующему объекту. Можно представить, что разум, затронутый другими существами, может знать их природу и отношения; но не так легко понять, как он может открывать их природу и отношения абсолютно необходимым образом, когда он абстрагируется от всякого существования, когда почва, на которую устремлены глаза рассудка, есть бездна ничто.

«Мы обманываем себя, когда воображаем, что возможно абстрагироваться от всякого существования. Даже когда мы предполагаем, что наш ум потерял из виду все, — очень легкое предположение, если допустить, что мы находим в нашем сознании случайность нашего бытия, — рассудок все еще воспринимает возможный порядок и воображает, что он весь занят чистой возможностью, независимо от существа, на котором он основан. Мы повторяем, что это иллюзия, которая исчезает, как только мы размышляем о ней. В чистом ничто ничто не возможно; нет никаких отношений, никаких связей любого рода; в ничто нет никаких комбинаций, это почва, на которой ничего нельзя изобразить.

«Объективность наших идей и восприятие необходимых отношений в возможном порядке раскрывают связь нашего рассудка с существом, на котором основана всякая возможность. Эта возможность не может быть объяснена ни при каком предположении, кроме того, которое делает связь состоящей в действии Бога, дающего нашему уму способности, воспринимающие необходимую связь определенных идей, основанных на необходимом бытии и репрезентативных Его бесконечной сущности».

Бальмес, следовательно, не имеет в виду, что мы могли бы продолжать видеть сущности как возможные, если бы мы представили устраненными не только конечные умы, но даже Божественный Разум. В такой абсурдной гипотезе ничто не казалось бы истинным или ложным, возможным или невозможным. Но он утверждает, что даже когда мы пытаемся мысленно устранить все умы, даже Божественный Разум, мы все равно видим возможные сущности как возможные. И из этого он аргументирует, что, поскольку мы успешно мысленно устранили конечные умы и актуальность сущностей, в то время как возможность последних все еще сохраняется, они должны быть основаны в Разуме Бога, Актуальном, Вечном, Необходимом Бытии, где они имеют вечное идеальное бытие.

Ср. Де Мюннинк (op. cit., стр. 22-3): «Ponamus mundum non esse, nec supponamus Dei existentiam. In nihilo illo, omne ens actuale excludens, remanet intacta — hoc certissime scimus ex objectivo valore intellectus nostri — realitas aeterna, immutabilis, ordinis idealis. [Illa realitas essentiarum, he adds (ibid., n. 2), independens ab omni actuali existentia, atque ab omni actu intellectus, est fundamentum metaphysicum realismi platonici. — Habet praeterea mirum hoc systema, ut omnes sciunt, fundamentum criteriologicum.] Essentiae sunt, nec tamen existunt. Illa realitas, praeter mundum totum, praeter entia rationis, indestructibilis perseverat, nec tamen actualis est. Haec quomodo intelligi possit nescimus, nisi ponatur illam fundari in plenitudine aeterna, infinita, absoluta τοῦ Esse absoluti. Hoc ente supremo posito, omnia lucidissima se praebent intellectui; illo Deo optimo — quem non possumus, perspectis illis altissimis, non adorare — sublato, admittendae sunt essentiae rerum ab aeterno reales sine actuali existentia; atque proinde quid non-individuale est reale in se, quod tamen concipi non potest nisi objective in mente». 98.Cf. St. Augustine, De Libero Arbitrio, lib. ii., ch. viii.99.Cf. especially Mercier, Ontologie, pp. 40-49.100.It is, for example, just as necessarily and immutably true of any actually existing man that he cannot be at the same time existing and not existing as it is that a man cannot be an irrational animal.101.“Unde, etiamsi intellectus humanus non esset, adhuc res dicerentur verae in ordine ad intellectum divinum. Sed si uterque intellectus, quod est impossibile, intelligeretur auferri, nullo modo ratio veritatis remaneret.”—St. Thomas, De Veritate, q. i., art. ii.102.Phædo, 100, C. ff.103.Mercier, Ontologie, pp. 45-7.104.Cf. De Munnynck, op. cit., pp. 24-5.105.Cf. De Munnynck, op. cit., pp. 24-5.106.ibid., pp. 22, 24.107.“Quæ objecta non divina esse, luce clarius apparet. Attamen ilia ponderando, modumque inspiciendo quo representantur a mente humana, atque praesupponendo valorem objectivum intellectus, concludimus ex ideis ad realitates illas quæ in Esse divino fundantur ... ratione horum [objectorum scil. idearum nostrarum] percipimus, ope ratiocinii, illa positive aeterna et immutabilia, quæ reapse in Deitate fundantur, atque sunt ipse Deus quatenus imitabilis.”—ibid., pp. 24-5. Cf. extract quoted above, p. 91 n.108.“Non ideo voluit Deus mundum creare in tempore, quia vidit melius sic fore, quam si creasset ab æterno; nec voluit tres angulos trianguli æquales esse duobus rectis, quia cognovit aliter fieri non posse. Sed contra, quia voluit creare mundum in tempore, ideo sic melius est, quam si creatus fuisset ab æterno, et quia voluit tres angulos trianguli necessario æquales esse duobus rectis, idcirco jam verum est, et aliter fieri non potest, atque ita de reliquis.”—Descartes, in Resp. ad Sext. Objectiones, ad 6um scrupulum.109.Mercier, op. cit., pp. 58-60.110.Urraburu (op. cit. Disp. iii., cap. ii., § iii., p. 671) mentions Wolff, Leibniz, Genuensis and Storchenau as holding this view.111.Among others, Liberatore, Lahousse, Pesch, Harper. Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., ibid.112.Dupasquier, Mastrius and Rada, apud Urraburu, op. cit., ibid., pp. 679-81.113.Urraburu, Schiffini, Mendive. Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., ibid., p. 671.114.1 Cor. xiii. 12.115.“Ex hoc ipso quod quidditati esse attribuitur, non solum esse, sed ipsa quidditas creari dicitur: quia antequam esse habeat, nihil est, nisi forte in intellectu creantis, ubi non est creatura, sed creatrix essentia.”—St. Thomas, De Potentia, q. iii., art. v., ad 2 um.116.«Ipsum esse competit primo agenti secundum propriam naturam: esse enim Dei est ejus substantia, ut ostensum est (C. G., Lib. i., c. 22). Quod autem competit alicui secundum naturam suam, non convenit aliis nisi per modum participationis, sicut calor aliis corporibus ab igne [т.е. как вызванное или произведенное в них. Ср. Клейтген, op. cit., Dissert., i., c. iii., § 61]. Ipsum igitur esse competit aliis omnibus a primo agente per participationem quamdam. Quod autem alicui competit per participationem, non est substantia ejus. Impossibile est igitur quod substantia alterius entis praeter agens primum sit ipsum esse. Hinc est quod Exod. iii., proprium nomen Dei ponitur esse qui est, quia ejus solius proprium est, quod sua substantia non sit aliud quam suum esse.» — Святой Фома, Contra Gentes, L. ii., cap. 52, n. 7.

«Quod inest alicui ab agente, oportet esse actum ejus; agentis enim est facere aliquid actu. Ostensum est autem supra, quod omnes aliae substantiæ habent esse a primo agente, et per hoc ipsæ substantiæ creatæ sunt, quod esse ab alio habent. Ipsum igitur esse inest substantiis creatis ut quidam actus earum. Id autem, cui actus inest, potentia est: nam actus in quantum hujusmodi ad potentiam refertur. In qualibet igitur substantia creata est potentia et actus.» — ibid., cap. 53, n. 2.

«Omne quod recipit aliquid ab alio, est in potentia respectu illius: et hoc quod receptum est in eo, est actus ejus; ergo oportet, quod ipsa forma vel quidditas, quæ est intelligentia [т.е. чистый дух], sit in potentia respectu esse, quod a Deo recipit, et illud esse receptum est per modum actus, et ita invenitur actus et potentia in intelligentiis [т.е. чистые духи], non tamen forma et materia nisi aequivoce.» — De Ente et Essentia, cap. v. Ср. также Summa Theol., P. i., q. iii., art. 4; q. xiii., art. 11; q. lxxv., art. 5, ad 4 um. Quodlibeta, ii., art. 3; ix., art. 6. De Potentia, q. vii., art. 2. In Metaph., iii., Dist. vi., q. 2, art. 2. Contra Gentes, L. ii., cap. 54, 68. Святой Фома обычно интерпретируется как учитель того, что различие между сущностью и существованием в сотворенных вещах является реальным различием. Но есть некоторые, кто не смог убедить себя в том, что Ангельский Доктор полностью прояснил свое мнение по этому вопросу. Клейтген, например, пишет (op. cit., Dissert. vi., c. ii., § 574, n. 2): «В приведенных выше отрывках святой Фома ясно утверждает, что различие, проводимое нашим мышлением, основано на природе сотворенных вещей, но не то, что это различие является тем, которое существует между различными частями, зависящими друг от друга, каждая из которых имеет свое собственное надлежащее бытие или реальность». 117.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 249, 5o.118.Cf. Reinstadler, Ontologia, lib. ii., cap. i., art. ii., § 2.119.Zigliara (Ontologia (14), iii. iv.) gives the virtual distinction as a sub-class of the real distinction; adding, however (according to Goudin, Metaph., Disp. i., q. iii. art. ii., § i) that “this virtual distinction is not so much a [real] distinction as the basis of a [mental] distinction”.120.op. cit., p. 110.121.These may be seen in abundance in the works of any of the scholastic writers, medieval or modern, who discuss the question. Cf., e.g. Urraburu, op. cit., §§ 251-4.122.Besides St. Thomas (cf. supra, p. 102, n. 2), Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), Aegidius Romanus († circa 1300), Capreolus (1380-1444), Soncinas († 1494), Cajetan (1468-1534), Sylvester Ferrariensis (1474-1528), Dominicus Bañez (1528-1604), John of St. Thomas (1589-1644), Goudin (1639-95), are among the most noted scholastics to hold this view. It is supported by the members of the Dominican Order generally; and by not a few Jesuits among recent scholastic writers; also by Mercier, op. cit., §§ 48-51.123.Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., § 575.124.ibid., § 577.125.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., Disp. iv., cap. i., art. 2, pp. 730-31.126.“Esse rei quamvis sit aliud ab ejus essentia, non tamen est intelligendum, quod sit aliquod superadditum, ad modum accidentis, sed quasi constituitur per principia essentiae. Et ideo hoc nomen, quod imponitur ab esse (ens) significat idem cum nomine quod imponitur ab ipsa essentia.”—St. Thomas, In Metaph., L. iv., l. 2.127.Among the advocates of this view are Alexander of Hales († 1245), Aureolus († 1322), Durandus († 1332), Gabriel Biel († 1495), Suarez (1548-1617), Toletus (1532-1596), Vasquez (1551-1604), Gregory of Valentia († circa 1600), and the Jesuits generally: some few regarding the distinction as purely logical, e.g. Franzelin (apud Mercier, op. cit., § 47, p. 110, n. 2). For details and arguments on both sides, cf. Urraburu, op. cit., Disp. iv., cap. i., art. 2.128.“Compositum ex esse et essentia dicitur de ratione entis creati secundum fundamentum, quod in ipso ente creato habet; hoc autem fundamentum non est aliud nisi quia creatura non habet ex se actu existere, sed tantum est ens potentiale, quod ab alio potest esse participare: nam hinc fit, ut essentia creaturae concipiatur a nobis ut potentiale quid, esse vero ut modus seu actus, quo talis essentia ens in actu constituitur.”—Suarez, Metaph., Disp. xxxi., § 13.129.When we speak of an essence as receiving existence, we do not necessarily imply a real distinction between receiver and received: “Non est imaginandum quod una res sit, quae participat sicut essentia, et alia quae participatur sicut esse, sed quia una et eadem res est realitas modo participato et per vim alterius sicut per vim agentis: haec enim realitas de se non est nisi sub modo possibili; quod autem sit et vocari possit actus, hoc habet per vim agentis.”—Alexander of Hales, In Metaph., L. vii., text 22. “Non omne acceptum,” writes St. Thomas, “est receptum in aliquo subjecto; alioquin non posset dici quod tota substantia rei creatae sit accepta a Deo, cum totius substantiae non sit aliquod subjectum receptivum”—Summa Theol., I., q. xxvii., art. ii., ad. 3um.130.Cf. Mercier, op. cit., § 49. Some of these doctrines we shall examine later, by way of illustration, in connexion with the Unity of being.131.Cf. Urraburu, ibid., art. iii., Obj. 9, Resp.132.This view is advocated by, among others, Duns Scotus (1266-1308), Henry of Ghent († 1293), Francis de Vittoria (1480-1566), Dominicus de Soto (1496-1560), Molina (1535-1600), Fonseca (1548-97), and Scotists generally.133.Aristotle, Metaph., lib. 5, text ii., cap. 6; St. Thomas, in loc. et alibi.134.“Si ... modus entis accipiatur ... secundum divisionem unius ab altero, ... hoc exprimit hoc nomen aliquid, dicitur enim aliquid quasi aliud quid. Unde sicut ens dicitur unum inquantum est indivisum in se, ita dicitur aliquid inquantum est ab aliis diversum.”—St. Thomas, De Veritate, q. 1, a. 1.135.“Nam omne ens est aut simplex, aut compositum. Quod autem est simplex, est indivisum et actu et potentia. Quod autem est compositum, non habet esse, quamdiu partes ejus sint divisae, sed postquam constituunt et componunt ipsum compositum. Unde manifestum est quod esse cujuslibet rei consistit in indivisione; et inde est, quod unumquodque sicut custodit suum esse, ita custodit suam unitatem.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. xi., a. 1.136.“Unum vero quod est principium numeri, addit supra substantiam rationem mensurae, quae est propria passio quantitatis, et primo invenitur in unitate. Et dicitur per privationem vel negationem divisionis, quae est secundum quantitatem continuam. Nam numerus ex divisione continui causatur.”—St. Thomas, In Metaph., lib. 4, lect. 2, par. b.137.Those who regard the distinction between the essence and the existence of an actually existing substance as real consider the latter as an ens unum per se. The existence of a real distinction between the essential constitutive factors of a composite substance is universally regarded by scholastics as compatible with essential unity—unitas per se—in the latter. Such factors are really distinct, and separable or divisible, but actually undivided. So also, the union of an individual nature and its subsistence (73) forms a unum per se (unum compositionis) in the view of those who place a real distinction between these factors.138.Of course essential unity of composition is also “natural”. Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., §§ 631-8.139.“Unum quod convertitur cum ente ponit quidem ipsum ens, sed nihil superaddit, nisi negationem divisionis. Multitudo autem ei correspondens addit supra res, quæ dicuntur multæ, quod unaquæque earum sit una, et quod una earum non sit altera.... Et sic, cum unum addat supra ens unam negationem, secundum quod aliquid est indivisum in se, multitudo addit duas negationes, prout scilicet aliquid est in se indivisum, et prout est ab alio divisum, et unum eorum non esse alterum.”—St. Thomas, De Potent., q. 9, a. 7.140.“Sic ergo primo in intellectu nostro cadit ens, et deinde divisio, et post hoc unum quod divisionem privat, et ultimo multitudo quæ ex unitatibus constituitur.”—St. Thomas, In Metaph., lib. 10, lect. 4, par. c.141.Omnis pluralitas consequitur aliquam divisionem. Est autem duplex divisio: una materialis quæ fit secundum divisionem continui, et hanc sequitur numerus, qui est species quantitatis. Unde talis numerus, non est nisi in rebus materialibus habentibus quantitatem. Alia est divisio formalis, quæ fit per oppositas vel diversas formas: et hanc divisionem sequitur multitudo quæ non est in aliquo genere, sed est de transcendentibus, secundum quod ens dividitur per unum et multa. Et talem multitudinem solam contingit esse in rebus immaterialibus.—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. xxx., art. 3.142.We may confine our attention here to substances, assuming for the present that accidents are individuated by the individual substances in which they inhere. We may note further that it is only corporeal individuals that fall directly within our experience. We can, of course, infer from the latter the actual existence of individual spiritual realities subsisting apart from matter, viz. human souls after death, and also the possibility of purely spiritual individual beings such as angels. But when we conceive these as individuals we must conceive them after the analogy of individuals in the domain of corporeal reality: it is only through concepts derived from this domain, and finding their proper application within it, that we can have any knowledge of suprasensible or spiritual realities, viz. by applying those concepts analogically to the latter.143.The “formal-actual” distinction, which Scotists advocate between these grades of being, we shall examine later.144.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., p. 280: “Principium ... intrinsicum vel formale est aliquid insitum rei, pertinensque ad intrinsecam et ultimam individui constitutionem, et fundans formalitatem illam, quae individitatio dicitur. Sicut enim materia est in homine, v.g. principium et fundamentum propter quod est, ac praedicatur materialis, et forma fundat in eodem praedicatum rationalis, totaque natura composita, humanitas, praedicatum hominis; ita quaerimus quid sit illud primum principium, unde existit in quovis individuo sua peculiaris ac propria individuatio.”145.In ancient Greece the Eleatics argued against the possibility of real plurality somewhat in this wise: If there were really different beings any two of them would differ from each other only by some third reality, and this again from each of the former by a fourth and a fifth reality, and so on ad infinitum: which would involve the absurdities of infinite number and infinite regress. A similar argument was used by the medieval pantheist, David of Dinant, to identify God with the material principle of corporeal reality: God and primary matter exist and do not differ; therefore they are identical: for if they differed they should differ by something distinct from either, and this again should differ from both by something distinct from all three, and so on ad infinitum: which is absurd. Such sophisms arise from accepting the purely abstract view of reality as adequate. We have seen already, in dealing with the abstract notion of being, that from this point of view it must be recognized and admitted that the reality whereby things differ (viz. being) is also the reality wherein they agree (viz. being, also). The paradox is restated below in regard to individuation.146.Materia ... dupliciter accipitur, scilicet, ut signata et non signata. Et dicitur signata, secundum quod consideratur cum determinatione dimensionum harum scilicet vel illarum; non signata autem, quæ sine determinatione dimensionum consideratur. Secundum hoc igitur est sciendum, quod materia signata est individuationis principium.—St. Thomas, De Veritate, q. ii., art. 6, ad. 7am.147.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., Disp. ii., cap. 2, § iii., pp. 271-3.148.These will easily be found in any of the fuller scholastic treatises. Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., Disp. ii., cap. 2, art. 4. Philosophia Lacencis, Logica, §§ 1282 sqq.; Mercier, Ontologie, §§ 36-42; Kleutgen, Philosophie Scolastique, §§ 610 sqq.; Bulliat, Thæsaurus Philosophiae Thomisticae (Nantes, 1899), pp. 171 sqq.—a useful book of reference for the teaching of St. Thomas.149.A kindred view to this is the view that subsistence (“subsistentia,” “suppositalitas”) or personality (“personalitas”) is the principle of individuation. We shall see later in what subsistence or personality is supposed to consist. Here it is sufficient to observe that the individual nature as such has not necessarily subsistence or personality; hence it cannot be individuated by this latter.150.The consistent attitude for the Thomist here would, however, appear to be a denial that such a thing would be intrinsically possible.151.Hujusmodi relatio non potest consistere nisi in quodam ordine, quem ratio adinvenit alicujus ad seipsum secundum aliquas ejus duas considerationes.—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. xxviii., art. 3, ad. 2am.152.Cf. Science of Logic, vol. i., § 59.153.It is only the concrete and individual that as such can exist actually; the abstract and universal as such cannot exist actually: abstractness and universality are mental modes—entia rationis—annexed by the mind to the real content of its concepts: considered as thought-objects they are themselves not real entities: they do not affect reality as given to us in our experience. But perhaps concreteness and individuality are also mere mental modes, affecting reality not as given to us in our experience but only as subjected to the process of intellectual conception, or at least as subjected to the process of sense perception? This would appear to be part of the general Kantian theory of knowledge: that we can apprehend reality as concrete and individual only because space and time, which characterize the concrete and individual mode of being, are mental modes which must be applied to reality as a prerequisite condition for rendering the latter capable of apprehension in our experience. This contention is examined in another context. Cf. infra, pp. 145, 147, 151.154.Thus the recognition of a virtual distinction in a being is a sign of the relative perfection of the latter: the being involves in its higher sort of unity perfections elsewhere dispersed and separate. The being is of a higher order than if the principles of these perfections in it were really distinct from one another. But the virtual distinction also seems to imply a relative imperfection when it is found in creatures, inasmuch as here the thought-objects so distinguished are always principles of a plurality of really distinct accidental perfections: and real plurality in a being is less perfect than unity.—Cf. Kleutgen, op. cit., § 633.155.“Omnis cognitio est a potentia et objecto, sive a cognoscente et cognito. Ratio a priori est, quia omnis cognitio saltem creata est expressio et imitatio atque imago vitalis objecti. Inquantum igitur est vitalis, procedit a cognoscente; implicat enim cognoscentem vivere per aliquid, quod ab ipso non est, sed pure illud recipit ab alio mere passive se habendo; inquantum vero cognitio est expressio, imitatio et imago objecti, procedit ab objecto”—Silvester Maurus, Quaest. Philos., q. 2. This is the common scholastic distinction: cognition as a product representative or expressive of reality is a product determined by the influence of reality (as active) on the mind (as passive); cognition as a vital process is active, a reaction of mind to the influence of reality. It may be remarked, however, that the cognitive process, as vital, has always a positive term. Our cognitive processes are partly at least processes of abstracting, comparing, relating, universalizing: processes which produce “intentiones logicas” or “entia rationis,” such as the “intentio universalitatis” the relation of subject to predicate, and other logical relations and logical distinctions: and hence arises the difficulty, when we come to reflect on our cognitive experience, of discriminating between these “logical entities” and the reality which we interpret by means of them: of discriminating, in other words, between logical and real distinctions.156.It is not necessary of course that this implicit embodiment of all the others, by any one of them, be seen to be mutual. It is sufficient, for instance, that of the concepts a, b, c and d, a be seen implicitly to involve b, b to involve c, etc., though not vice versa. However, it must be remarked that in the exercise of thought upon its abstract objects we feel something wanting to our intellectual insight as long as the relations we apprehend are not reciprocal. In the sciences of abstract quantity we approximate to the ideal of establishing reciprocal relations throughout the whole system of the concepts analysed. But abstract thought does not give us an adequate apprehension of the real: it represents reality only under the static aspect, and as abstract, i.e. apart from the individualizing conditions of time and space which affect its concrete, actual existence as revealed in sense experience. Were we to neglect the latter, and consider merely what abstract thought gives us, we should regard as really one what is one for thought. But what is one for thought is the universal; and the logical issue of holding the universal as such to be real is monism. Or again, to put the matter in another way, in so far as intellect sees the objects of its various abstract concepts to involve one another necessarily, it has no reason—as long as it ignores the verdict of sense experience on the real manifoldness of actually existing being—to abstain from attributing a real unity to the whole system of abstract thought-objects which it contemplates as reciprocally and necessarily interrelated. On the contrary, it should pronounce that whatever plurality can be unified by the dialectically necessary relations discovered by thought, is really one, and must be regarded as one reality: which, again, is monism. But a philosophy which thus ignores sense experience must be one-sided and misleading.157.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., Disp. ii., cap. ii., art. 5 (p. 319).158.Cf. infra, § 83.159.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., ibid. p. 322.160.St. Thomas, De Ente et Essentia, cap. iv.

: “Ideo, si quaeratur utrum ista natura possit dici una vel plures, neutrum concedendum est: quia utrumque est extra intellectum [conceptum] humanitatis, et utrumque potest sibi accidere. Si enim pluralitas esset de ratione ejus, nunquam posset esse una: cum tamen una sit secundum quod est in Sorte. Similiter si unitas esset de intellectu et ratione ejus, tunc esset una et eadem natura Sortis et Platonis, nec posset in pluribus plurificari.” Cf. Zigliara, Summa Philos., Ontologia (1), iv., v.; (3) iv.161.“Licet enim (natura) nunquam sit sine aliquo istorum, non tamen est de se aliquod istorum, ita etiam in rerum natura secundum illam entitatem habet verum ‘esse’ extra animam reale: et secundum illam entitatem habet unitatem sibi proportionabilem, quae est indifferens ad singularitatem, ita quod non, repugnat illi unitati de se, quod cum quacumque unitate singularitatis ponatur.”—Scotus, In L. Sent., 2, dist. iii., q. 7.—Cf. De Wulf, History of Medieval Philosophy, p. 372.162.Cf. Science of Logic, ii., § 248. Moral truth or veracity—the conformity of language with thought—is treated in Ethics.163.Cf. Mercier, Ontologie, P. ii., § 4, i.164.Cf. Science of Logic, ii., §§ 252-4.165.“Si omnis intellectus (quod est impossibile) intelligeretur auferri, nullo modo ratio veritatis remaneret.”—St. Thomas, De Veritate, q. i., art 1, 2 in fine.166.Cf. St. Thomas, De Veritate, q. i., and passim.167.St. Thomas, De Veritate, q. i., art. 2.168.St. Thomas, De Veritate, q. i., art. 4; Summa Theol., i., q. 16, art. 6.169.“Si intellectus humanus non esset, adhuc res dicerentur veræ in ordine ad intellectum divinum. Sed si uterque intellectus, quod est impossibile, intelligeretur auferri, nullo modo ratio veritatis remaneret.”—St. Thomas, De Veritate, q. i., art. 2.170.“Si ergo accipiatur veritas rei secundum ordinem ad intellectum divinum, tunc quidem mutatur veritas rei mutablis in aliam veritatem, non in falsitatem.”—St. Thomas, ibid. q. i., art. 6.171.Cf. Aristotle, De Anima, iii.; St. Thomas, De Veritate, q. i., art. 1.172.“Res per se non fallunt, sed per accidens. Dant enim occasionem falsitatis; eo quod similitudinem eorum gerunt quorum non habent existentiam.... Res notitiam sui facit in anima per ea quae de ipsa exterius apparent ... et ideo quando in aliqua re apparent sensibiles qualitates demonstrantes naturam quae eis non subest, dicitur res illa esse falsa.... Nec tamen res est hoc modo causa falsitatis in anima, quod necessario falsitatem causat.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. 17, art. 1, ad. 2; De Veritate, q. i., art. 10, c.173.Καλῶς ἀπεφήναντο τἀγαθὸν, οὖ πάντα ἐφίεται.—Aristotle, Eth., i.174.Cf. Science of Logic, ii., § 217.175.“Bonum autem, cum habeat notionem appetibilis, importat habitudinem causæ finalis.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. 5, art. 2, ad. 1.176.“Prima autem non possunt notificari per aliqua priora, sed notificantur per posteriora, sicut causæ per proprios effectus. Cum autem bonum proprie sit motivum appetitus, describitur bonum per motum appetitus, sicut solet manifestari vis motiva per motum. Et ideo dicit (Aristoteles) quod philosophi bene enunciaverunt bonum esse id quod omnia appetunt.”—St. Thomas, Comment. in Eth. Nich., i., lect. 1a.177.The “end,” which is last in the order of actual attainment, is first as the ideal term of the aim or tendency of the nature: finis est ultimus in executione, sed primus in intentione: it is that for the sake of which, and with a view to which, the whole process of actualization or “perfecting” goes on. Cf. infra, § 108.178.“Licet bonum et ens sint idem secundum rem; quia tamen differunt secundum rationem, non eodem modo dicitur aliquid ens simpliciter et bonum simpliciter. Nam, cum ens dicat aliquid esse in actu, actus autem proprie ordinem habeat ad potentiam, secundum hoc simpliciter aliquid dicitur esse ens secundum quod primo secernitur ab eo quod est in potentia tantum; hoc autem est esse substantiale rei uniuscujusque. Unde per suum esse substantiale dicitur unumquodque ens simpliciter; per actus autem superadditos dicitur aliquid esse secundum quid.... Sic ergo secundum primum esse, quod est substantiale, dicitur aliquid ens simpliciter et bonum secundum quid, id est, inquantum est ens; secundum vero ultimum actum dicitur aliquid ens secundum quid, et bonum simpliciter.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. 5, art. 1, ad. 1.179.“Respectus ... qui importatur nomine boni est habitudo perfectivi secundum quodaliquid natum est perficere non solum secundum rationem speciei [i.e. the abstract essence], sed secundum esse quod habet in rebus; hoc enim modo finis perficit ea quae sunt ad finem.”—St. Thomas, De Veritate, q. 26, art. 6.180.Cf. the familiar ethical distinction between objective, and formal or subjective happiness, beatitudo objectiva and beatitudo formalis seu subjectiva.181.“In motu appetitus, id quod est appetibile terminans motum appetitus secundum quid, ut medium per quod tenditur in aliud, vocatur utile. Id autem quod appetitur ut ultimum terminans totaliter motum appetitus sicut quaedam res in quam per se appetitus tendit, vocatur honestum; quia honestum dicitur quod per se desideratur. Id autem quod terminat motum appetitus, ut quies in se desiderata, est delectabile.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. 5, art. 3.182.Excellentia hominis maxime consideratur secundum virtutem, quae est dis positio perfecti ad optimum, ut dicitur in 6 Physic. Et ideo, honestum, proprie loquendo, in idem refertur cum virtute.—ibid., 2a 2ae, q. 145, art. I, c.183.“Eorum quae propter se apprehenduntur, quaedam apprehenduntur solum propter se, et nunquam propter aliud, sicut felicitas, quae est ultimus finis; quaedam vero apprehenduntur et propter se, in quantum habent in seipsis aliquam rationem bonitatis, etiamsi nihil aliud boni per ea nobis accideret, et tamen sunt appetibilia propter aliud, in quantum scilicet perducunt nos in aliquod bonum perfectius: et hoc modo virtutes sunt propter se apprehendendae.”—ibid., ad I.184.Cf. Mercier, op. cit., p. 236.185.“Omnia ... quae jam habent esse, illud esse suum naturaliter amant, et ipsam tota virtute conservant.... Ipsum igitur esse habet rationem boni. Unde sicut impossibile est quod sit aliquod ens quod non habeat esse, ita necesse est quod omne ens sit bonum ex hoc ipso quod habet esse.”—St. Thomas, De Veritate, q. 21, art. 2, c.186.“Non-esse secundum se non est appetibile, sed per accidens, inquantum scilicet ablatio alicujus mali est appetibilis; quod malum quidem aufertur per non-esse; ablatio vero mali non est appetibilis, nisi inquantum per malum privatur quoddam esse. Illud igitur, quod per se est appetibile, est esse; non-esse vero, per accidens tantum, inquantum scilicet quoddam esse appetitur, quo homo non sustinet privari; et sic etiam per accidens non-esse dicitur bonum.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. 5, art. 2, ad. 3.187.“Malum est defectus boni quod natum est et debet haberi.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. 49, art. 1, c.188.ibid.189.“Causam formalem malum non habet, sed est magis privatio formae.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. 49, art. 1, c.190.“Nec causam finalem habet malum, sed magis est privatio ordinis ad debitum finem.”—ibid.191.“Non est causa efficiens sed deficiens mali, quia malum non est effectio sed defectio.”—De Civ. Dei, xii., 7.192.“O, altitudo divitiarum sapientiae, et scientiae Dei! Quam incomprehensibilia sunt judicia ejus, et investigabiles viae ejus!”—Rom. xi., 33.193.Connected with the transcendental notion of unity is another concept, that of order, which will be more fully examined when we come to treat of causes.194.Baumgarten, a German philosopher of the eighteenth century, was the first to use the term Aesthetica in this sense.195.“Dicendum est quod pulchrum est idem bono sola ratione differens. Cum enim bonum sit quod omnia appetunt, de ratione boni est, quod in eo quietetur appetitus; sed ad rationem pulchri attinet quod in ejus aspectu seu cognitione quietetur appetitus; unde et illi sensus præcipue respiciunt pulchrum, qui maxime cognoscitivi sunt, scilicet visus et auditus rationi deservientes; dicimus enim pulchra visibilia et pulchros sonos; in sensibilibus autem aliorum sensuum non utimur nomine pulchritudinis; non enim dicimus pulchros sapores, aut odores.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia. iiæ., q. 27, art. 1, ad. 3.196.“Ad rationem pulchri pertinet, quod in ejus aspectu seu cognitione quietetur appetitus ... ita quod pulchrum dicatur id, cujus ipsa apprehensio placet.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia. iiæ., q. 27, art. 1, ad. 3. And the Angelic Doctor justifies the extended use of the term vision: “De aliquo nomine dupliciter convenit loqui, uno modo secundum ejus primam impositionem, alio modo secundum usum nominis, sicut patet in nomine visionis, quod primo impositum est ad significandum actum sensus visus; sed propter dignitatem et certitudinem hujus sensus extensum est hoc nomen, secundum usum loquentium, ad omnem cognitionem aliorum sensuum; dicimus enim: Vide quomodo sapit, vel quomodo redolet, vel quomodo est calidum; et ulterius etiam ad cognitionem intellectus, secundum illud Matt. v. 8: Beati mundi corde quoniam ipsi Deum videbunt.”—i., q. 67, art. 1, c.197.“Pulchrum et bonum in subjecto quidem sunt idem, quia super eandem rem fundantur, scilicet super formam, et propter hoc bonum laudatur ut pulchrum: sed ratione differunt: nam bonum proprie respicit appetitum: ... et ideo habet rationem finis.... Pulchrum autem respicit vim cognoscitivam: pulchra enim dicuntur quæ visa placent.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. 5, art. 4, ad. 1.198.Cf. De Wulf, La Valeur esthétique de la moralité dans l'art, pp. 28-9.199.L'Art et la Morale, p. 29.200.De la connaissance de Dieu et de soi-même, ch. i., § 8.201.De Vera Religione, c. 32.202.Cf. Poincaré, Conférence sur les rapports de l'analyse et de la physique mathematique.—apud Mercier, Ontologie, § 274, pp. 546-7 n.203.When the object so excels in greatness or grandeur as to exceed more or less our capacity to realize it we speak of it as sublime. The sublime calls forth emotions of self-abasement, reverence, and even fear. If an object possessing the other requisites of beauty is wanting in due magnitude, we describe it as pretty or elegant. The terms grace, graceful, apply especially to gait, gesture, movement.204.On this point all the great philosophers are unanimous. For Plato, beauty whether of soul or of body, whether of animate or of inanimate things, results not from chance, but from order, rectitude, art: οὐχ οὕτως εἰκῆ κάλλιστα παραγίγνεται ἀλλὰ τάξει και ὀρθότητι καὶ τέχνῃ, ἥτις ἑκάστῳ ἀποδέδοται αὐτῶν (Plato, Gorg. 506D). Aristotle places beauty in grandeur and order: Τὸ γὰρ καλὸν ἐν μεγέθει καὶ τάξει ἐστί (Poetics, ch. viii., n. 8). Τοῦ δὲ καλοῦ μέγιστα ἐίδη τάξις καὶ συμμετρία καὶ τὸ ὡρισμένον (Metaph., xii., ch. iii., n. 11). “Nihil,” writes St. Augustine, “est ordinatum quod non sit pulchrum.” “Pulchra,” says St. Thomas, “dicuntur quae visa placent; unde pulchrum in debita proportione consistit” (Summa Theol., i., q. 5, art. 4, ad. 1).205.“Ad pulchritudinem tria requiruntur; primo quidem integritas sive perfectio; quae enim diminuta sunt, hoc ipso turpia sunt; et debita proportio sive consonantia; et iterum claritas.”—Summa Theol., i., q. 39, art. 8, c. Elsewhere he omits integrity, supposing it implied in order: “ad rationem pulchri sive decori concurrit et claritas et debita proportio”. And elsewhere again he omits clarity, this being a necessary effect of order: “pulchrum in debita proportione consistit”.206.By “natural perfection” is meant the perfection which a nature acquires by the realization of its end (5): Τέλειον δὲ τὸ ἔχον τέλος (Aristotle).207.This definition coincides with that found in a medieval scholastic treatise De Pulchro et Bono, attributed to St. Thomas or Albertus Magnas: “Ratio pulchri in universali consistit in resplendentia formae super partes materiae proportionatas, vel super diversas vires vel actiones.” Cf. Mercier, Ontologie, p. 554.208.L'Idée du beau dans la philosophie de S. Thomas d'Aquin, p. 2.209.Du Vrai, du Beau et du Bien, viie leçon.210.Kritik der Urtheilskraft, Th. i., Abschn. 1, B. 1, passim.211.“Omnis corporea creatura ... bonum est infimum, et in genere suo pulchrum quoniam forma et specie continetur.”—St. Augustine, De Vera Relig., c. 20.212.At the same time it must be borne in mind that many of the judgments by which things are pronounced “ugly” or “commonplace” are erroneous. This is partly because they are based on first and superficial sense impressions: beauty must be apprehended and judged by the intellect, and by the intellect “informed” with genuine knowledge; to the eye of enlightened intelligence there are beauties of structure and organization in the beetle or the tadpole as well as in the peacock or the spaniel. It is partly, too, because we unconsciously or semi-consciously apply standards of human beauty to beings that are merely animal: “To know really whether there are ugly monkeys we should have to consult a monkey; for the beauty we unconsciously look for, and certainly do not find, in the monkey, is the beauty of the human form; and when we declare the monkey ugly what we really mean is that it would be ugly if it were a human being; which is undeniable.”—Sully-Prudhomme, L'Expression dans les beaux arts, p. 104.213.Proverbs, xxxi. 30.214.St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia, iiae, q. 57, art. 3, c.215.Cf. Science of Logic, i., §§ 70 sqq.216.Cf. Windelband, History of Philosophy (tr. Tufts), Introduction.217.Cf. Science of Logic, ii. P. iv., ch. v.218.Metaph., vi., 1.219.Cf. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i., q. 90, art. 2: “Illud proprie dicitur esse quod ipsum habet esse quasi in suo esse subsistens. Unde solæ substantiæ proprie et vere dicuntur entia; accidens vero non habet esse sed eo aliquid est, et hac ratione ens dicitur ... accidens dicitur magis entis quam ens.”220.In Metaph., L. v., lect. 9; cf. In Physic., L. iii., lect. 5.221.Science of Logic, i., §§ 71, 73-76.222.ibid., §§ 74, 76.223.Cf. Urraburu, op. cit., § 268 (p. 668); Mercier, Logique, § 33 (4th edit., p. 99).224.Cf. St. Thomas, In Metaph., L. xi., lect. 9: “Sed sciendum est quod prædicamenta diversificantur secundum diversos modos prædicandi. Unde idem, secundum quod diversimode de diversis prædicatur, ad diversa prædicamenta pertinet.... Similiter motus secundum quod prædicatur de subjecto in quo est, constituit prædicamentum passionis. Secundum autem quod prædicatur de eo a quo est, constituit prædicamentum actionis.”225.Ontologie, § 138 (3rd edit., p. 263).226.Cf. Essay concerning Human Understanding, book iv., ch. vi., § 11: “Had we such ideas of substances, as to know what real constitutions produce those sensible qualities we find in them, and how these qualities flowed from thence, we could, by the specific ideas of their real essences in our own minds, more certainly find out their properties, and discover what properties they had or had not, than we can now by our senses: and to know the properties of gold, it would be no more necessary that gold should exist, than it is necessary for the knowing the properties of a triangle, that the triangle should exist in any matter; the idea in our minds would serve for the one as well as the other.”227.“Sensation convinces us that there are solid, extended substances; and reflection, that there are thinking ones: experience assures us of the existence of such beings.”—ibid., book ii., ch. xxiii., § 29. Locke protested repeatedly against the charge that he denied the existence of substances.228.The notion one has of pure substance is “only a supposition of he knows not what support of such qualities, which are capable of producing simple ideas in us; which qualities are commonly called accidents.... The idea then we have, to which we give the general name substance, being nothing but the supposed, but unknown support of those qualities we find existing, which we imagine cannot subsist, ‘sine re substante,’ without something to support them, we call that support substantia.”—book ii., ch. xxiii., § 2. In the following passage we may detect the idealistic insinuation that knowledge reaches only to “ideas” or mental states, not to the extramental reality, the “secret, abstract nature of substance”: “Whatever therefore be the secret abstract nature of substance in general, all the ideas we have of particular distinct sorts of substances, are nothing but several combinations of simple ideas, co-existing in such, though unknown, cause of their union, as makes the whole subsist of itself”. It belongs, of course, to the Theory of Knowledge, not to the Theory of Being, to show how groundless the idealistic assumption is.229.Inquiring into the causes of our “impressions” and “ideas,” he admits the existence of “bodies” which cause them and “minds” which experience them: “We may well ask, What causes induce us to believe in the existence of body? but 'tis vain to ask, Whether there be body or not? That is a point, which we must take for granted in all our reasonings.”—A Treatise on Human Nature, Part iv., § ii.230.Of the definition of a substance as something which may exist by itself, he says: “this definition agrees to everything that can possibly be conceiv'd; and will never serve to distinguish substance from accident, or the soul from its perceptions.... Since all our perceptions are different from each other, and from everything else in the universe, they are also distinct and separable, and may be consider'd as separately existent, and may exist separately, and have no need of anything else to support their existence. They are, therefore, substances, as far as this definition explains a substance.”—ibid., § v. “We have no perfect idea of substance, but ... taking it for something that can exist by itself, 'tis evident every perception is a substance, and every distinct part of a perception a distinct substance.”—ibid.231.Cf. Mercier, op. cit., § 142 (p. 272).232.Cf. Kleutgen, op.