Arthur Schopenhauer undertakes a rigorous investigation into the true basis of ethics, aiming to strip away both dogmatic theology and abstract philosophical artifices. In the opening sections, he subjects Immanuel Kant's moral philosophy to a searching critique, challenging the validity of the categorical imperative and the notion of unconditioned duty. Schopenhauer argues that such concepts are merely disguised theological commands lacking a real foundation in human nature or objective reality. He demonstrates that ethical systems built upon abstract formulas or pure reason float in the air without empirical substance, and that their hidden interpreter is invariably egoism.
Transitioning to the positive side of his inquiry, the author examines the sceptical view of morality and enumerates the antimoral incentives that govern the vast majority of human actions: egoism and malice. He maintains that true morality cannot rest on fear, the promise of rewards in an afterlife, or the desire for self-satisfaction. Instead, he establishes the absolute criterion for genuine moral worth as the complete absence of egoistic motivation.
The core of Schopenhauer's thesis rests on the identification of compassion as the sole genuine fount of moral conduct. He proves that the suffering of another person must become a direct motive for action if an deed is to possess moral value. This compassion manifests in two distinct degrees, giving rise to the two cardinal virtues. The first degree is negative and results in justice, urging the agent to do harm to no one. The second degree is positive and inspires loving-kindness, motivating the agent to render active help and relief to those in distress.
Throughout the work, Schopenhauer intertwines his ethical theory with deep metaphysical insights, notably his doctrine of the intelligible and empirical character, which explains human freedom and responsibility. He demonstrates how actions are strictly determined by motives acting upon an immutable innate character, while true freedom resides in the transcendental noumenal realm. Ultimately, the essay dissolves the apparent contradictions between the various religious and philosophical frameworks of morality, unifying them under a single simplifying truth: the recognition that individual separation is an illusion, and that compassion is the direct perception of the metaphysical unity of all living existence.
