«Триумфы и чудеса XIX века: Истинное зеркало феноменальной эпохи»

«ТРИУМФЫ И ЧУДЕСА ДЕВЯТНАДЦАТОГО ВЕКА».

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Триумфы и Чудеса XIX века

ИСТИННОЕ ЗЕРКАЛО ФЕНОМЕНАЛЬНОЙ ЭПОХИ

ТОМ ОРИГИНАЛЬНЫХ, ЗАНИМАТЕЛЬНЫХ И ПОУЧИТЕЛЬНЫХ ИСТОРИЧЕСКИХ И ОПИСАТЕЛЬНЫХ ОЧЕРКОВ, ДЕМОНСТРИРУЮЩИХ МНОГОЧИСЛЕННЫЕ И УДИВИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ДОСТИЖЕНИЯ, КОТОРЫМИ ОТМЕЧЕНО СТОЛЕТИЕ МАТЕРИАЛЬНОГО, ИНТЕЛЛЕКТУАЛЬНОГО, СОЦИАЛЬНОГО И НРАВСТВЕННОГО ПРОГРЕССА, ВКЛЮЧАЮЩИЙ В СЕБЯ ВСЕ ТЕ ТЕМЫ, КОТОРЫЕ НАИЛУЧШИМ ОБРАЗОМ ХАРАКТЕРИЗУЮТ ГЕНИЙ, ДУХ И ЭНЕРГИЮ ВЕКА И СЛУЖАТ ДЛЯ ТОГО, ЧТОБЫ В ЯРЧАЙШЕМ СВЕТЕ ПРЕДСТАВИТЬ ВЕЛИКОЕ ШЕСТВИЕ УЛУЧШЕНИЙ В РАЗЛИЧНЫХ ОБЛАСТЯХ ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКОЙ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ.

ДЖЕЙМС П. БОЙД, магистр искусств, бакалавр права, при содействии коллектива авторов из тридцати двух выдающихся и специально квалифицированных специалистов.

Богато и великолепно иллюстрировано.

ФИЛАДЕЛЬФИЯ, А. Дж. ХОЛМАН И КО.

Авторское право, 1899 г., У. Г. Исбистер. Все права защищены.

Авторское право, 1901 г., У. Г. Исбистер.

ВВЕДЕНИЕ

Если измерять эпохи, или эры, столетними промежутками, то период, охватывающий девятнадцатый век, выделяется возвышенным и обнадеживающим контрастом по сравнению с любым предшествующим. Будучи наследником всех предыдущих столетий, он расширил и облагородил свое наследие в степени, не имеющей аналогов в истории; в то же время, благодаря присущим только ему гению и энергии, он создал оригинальное достояние для собственного пользования и для будущего, гораздо более богатое, чем любое из когда-либо зафиксированных ранее. Действительно, не позволяя существующей и простительной гордости поставить под угрозу строгую истину, можно сказать, что по многим направлениям изобретений и прогресса, которые наиболее тесно затронули жизнь и цивилизацию мира, девятнадцатый век достиг триумфов и совершил чудеса, равные, если не превосходящие все остальные века вместе взятые.

Поэтому, какое время может быть более подходящим, чем его завершение, чтобы провести приятный и поучительный обзор многочисленных материальных и интеллектуальных достижений, которые так выделили его и способствовали столь многими и удивительными путями великому прогрессу и подлинному комфорту человеческого рода! Или что могло бы стать большим источником гордости и пользы, чем сравнение его славных дел с делами прошлого, чтобы лучше понять и оценить фактические шаги и реальный масштаб прогресса человечества! Или что может быть более восхитительным и вдохновляющим, чем осознание того, что сумма этих чудесных деяний, частью которых является или был каждый читатель, пошла на увеличение величия мировой эпохи, лучи которой проникнут в грядущие столетия и осветят их!

Среди столь многих и веских причин этот том находит прекрасное оправдание своему существованию. Его цели — отразить удивительный век с высоты его последнего года; верно проследить линии, которые отмечают его почти магический прогресс; придать ему то высокое и истинное историческое место, откуда его контрасты с прошлым могут быть лучше всего замечены, а его свет на будущее — наиболее прямо направлен.

Эта задача была бы явно не под силу одному уму. Столь стремительным был прогресс в течение некоторых частей века, столь поразительными были результаты в области открытий и изобретений, столь разнообразными были сферы деятельности, что только от тех, кто обладает специальными знаниями и подготовкой, можно было ожидать, что они отдадут должное многим рассматриваемым предметам.

Следовательно, работа была спланирована так, чтобы придать ей ценность, далеко выходящую за рамки того, что мог бы привнести один ум. Каждая из тем, выбранных для характеристики великого шествия века, была рассмотрена автором, обладающим специальной подготовкой и занимающим высокое положение в своей профессии или призвании, с целью обеспечения читателей лучшими мыслями и фактами, относящимися к замечательным событиям ста лет. В этом отношении том уникален и оригинален. Его авторство принадлежит не одному уму, а коллективу авторов, чье объединение обеспечивает то, чего требует случай.

Масштаб, характер и ценность тома дополнительно проявляются в его очень большом количестве и практической направленности тем, выбранных для демонстрации активных сил, восходящих и поступательных движений, а также грандиозных результатов, которые действовали внутри и триумфально увенчали эру, не имеющую аналогов. Эти темы охватывают науки века в их многочисленных подразделениях и завоеваниях; его искусства и литературу; промышленный, коммерческий и финансовый прогресс; доблесть на суше и на море; образовательный, социальный, моральный и религиозный рост; фактически, каждую область предпринимательства и достижений в пределах промежутка времени, охваченного работой.

Том с таким разнообразием тем и большим охватом предоставляет прекрасную возможность для иллюстрации. Издатели в полной мере воспользовались этим и украсили его таким образом, который отвечает любому взору и вкусу. Редко какой том был так высоко и элегантно украшен. Каждая тема освещена так, чтобы увеличить удовольствие от чтения и произвести впечатление, которое окажется долговечным.

Что касается его цели и охвата, количества специально квалифицированных авторов, энергичности и разнообразия стиля и мысли, исторической всесторонности и точности, огромного богатства иллюстраций, превосходного исполнения, различных других поразительных особенностей, том может легко претендовать на звание одного из триумфов века, чуда трудолюбивой подготовки, и быть приемлемым для всех. Во всяком случае, ни один такой том никогда не отражал ни одного предыдущего века, и ни один не сможет отразить девятнадцатый век с более верными линиями и красками.

Работа является не только редкой и дорогостоящей картиной, наполненной вдохновляющими деталями, выполненными мастерскими руками, но и памятником, чье прочное основание, грандиозные пропорции и элегантная отделка соответствуют духу эпохи, которую он отмечает, и результатам, которые он чтит. Каждая его надпись — это яркая дань уважения человеческим достижениям любого рода и в любой области деятельности, и поэтому счастливое средство передачи деятелям двадцатого века истории времени, чьи славные свершения им будет трудно превзойти. Пусть эта картина и памятник будут просмотрены, изучены и оценены всеми, чтобы знаменательные главы, завершающие историю уходящего века, помогли в формировании начал века грядущего.

АВТОРЫ И ТЕМЫ

ДЖЕЙМС П. БОЙД, магистр искусств, бакалавр права. Чудеса электричества. КОНТР-АДМИРАЛ ДЖОРДЖ УОЛЛЕС МЕЛВИЛЛ, начальник Бюро паровой техники, Военно-морское министерство, Вашингтон, округ Колумбия. Военно-морской прогресс века. СЕЛДЕН Дж. КОФФИН, магистр искусств, профессор астрономии, Лафайет-колледж, Истон, Пенсильвания. Астрономия в течение века. ТОМАС МИХЕН, вице-президент Академии естественных наук, Филадельфия. История растений и цветов. МЭРИ ЭЛИЗАБЕТ ЛИС, первая женщина-президент Совета по благотворительности штата Канзас. Прогресс женщин в течение века. РОБЕРТ П. ХЕЙНС, главный эксперт по текстилю, Патентное ведомство США, Вашингтон, округ Колумбия. Текстильный прогресс века. ДЖОРДЖ ЭДВАРД РИД, доктор богословия, доктор права, президент Дикинсон-колледжа, Карлайл, Пенсильвания. Религиозный прогресс века. ДЖЕЙМС П. БОЙД, магистр искусств, бакалавр права. Великий рост библиотек. УИЛЬЯМ МАРТИН ЭЙКЕН, член Американского института архитекторов, бывший главный архитектор США, Министерство финансов, Вашингтон, округ Колумбия. Прогресс века в архитектуре. ХАРВИ У. УАЙЛИ, доктор медицины, доктор философии, доктор права, главный химик Отдела химии, Министерство сельского хозяйства, Вашингтон, округ Колумбия. Прогресс века в химии. РАЙТЕР ФИТЦДЖЕРАЛЬД, магистр искусств, драматический критик «City Item», Филадельфия. Музыка и драма века. ДЖЕЙМС П. БОЙД, магистр искусств, бакалавр права. Литература века. МОРРИС ДЖАСТРОУ-МЛАДШИЙ, доктор философии, профессор семитских языков, Пенсильванский университет. Записи прошлого. МАЙОР ГЕНРИ Э. ЭЛВОРД, инженер-строитель, доктор права, начальник молочного отдела, Министерство сельского хозяйства США, Вашингтон, округ Колумбия. Прогресс в молочном животноводстве. САРА Й. СТИВЕНСОН, доктор естественных наук, секретарь кафедры археологии и палеонтологии, Пенсильванский университет. Нравственный прогресс века. ЧАРЛЬЗ МАКИНТАЙР, магистр искусств, доктор медицины, лектор по санитарной науке, Лафайет-колледж, Истон, Пенсильвания. Прогресс санитарной науки. ПОДПОЛКОВНИК АРТУР Л. ВАГНЕР, помощник генерал-адъютанта армии США. Армии и вооружение века. УОЛДО Ф. БРАУН, сельскохозяйственный редактор «Cincinnati Gazette». Прогресс века в сельском хозяйстве. УОЛТЕР ЛОРИНГ УЭББ, инженер-строитель, доцент гражданского строительства, Пенсильванский университет. Прогресс в гражданском строительстве. Д. Э. СЭЛМОН, доктор медицины, начальник Бюро животноводства, Министерство сельского хозяйства, Вашингтон, округ Колумбия. Прогресс века в мире животных. ГЕНЕРАЛ-МАЙОР ДЖОЗЕФ УИЛЕР, армия США и член Конгресса от восьмого округа Алабамы. Ведущие войны века. ДЖОРДЖ Дж. ХАГАР, редактор приложения к Британской энциклопедии. Ярмарки и выставки века. ДОСТОПОЧТЕННЫЙ БРЭДФОРД РОУДС, редактор «Banker’s Magazine». Прогресс века в чеканке монет, валюте и банковском деле. Х. Э. ВАН ДЕМАН, бывший профессор ботаники и практического садоводства, Сельскохозяйственный колледж штата Канзас. Прогресс века в плодоводстве. ЭМОРИ Р. ДЖОНСОН, магистр искусств, доцент транспорта и торговли, Пенсильванский университет. Коммерческий прогресс века. ФРАНКЛИН С. ЭДМОНДС, магистр искусств, доцент политологии, Центральная средняя школа, Филадельфия. Успехи века в образовании. ТОМАС Дж. ЛИНДСИ, редакционный коллектив «Evening Bulletin», Филадельфия. «Искусство консервации». ДЖОРДЖ А. ПАКАРД, металлург и горный инженер. Прогресс в шахтах и горном деле. ДЖОН В. СИРС, художественный критик «Evening Telegraph», Филадельфия. Художественный прогресс века. Дж. МЭДИСОН ТЕЙЛОР, доктор медицины, и ДЖОН Х. ГИББОН, доктор медицины, хирурги амбулаторных отделений Пенсильванской и Детской больниц. Успехи века в хирургии. ФРАНК К. ХЭММОНД, доктор медицины, преподаватель гинекологии, Медицинский колледж Джефферсона. Прогресс медицины. Э. Э. РАССЕЛ ТРАТМАН, инженер-строитель, помощник редактора «Engineering News», Чикаго, Иллинойс. Эволюция железной дороги. ЛЮТЕР Э. ХЬЮИТТ, бакалавр права, библиотекарь Юридической ассоциации Филадельфии. Успехи в праве и правосудии. МАЙКЛ Дж. БРАУН, секретарь Лиги строительных и кредитных ассоциаций Пенсильвании. Прогресс строительных и кредитных ассоциаций. ПРЕПОДОБНЫЙ А. ЛЕФФИНГУЭЛЛ, настоятель церкви Троицы, Толедо, Огайо. Творцы эпохи века.

АНАЛИЗ СОДЕРЖАНИЯ

WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY

I. At the Dawn of the Century:—Earliest Observations on Electricity—Study of Amber—Earliest Electric Machines—Conduction of Electricity—The Leyden Jar—Franklin’s Discoveries. II. New Nineteenth Century Electricity:—Galvanism—The Voltaic Pile—Davy’s Arc-light—The Electro-magnet—Faraday’s Discoveries—The Induction Coil—Fields of Force. III. The Telegraph:—First Successful Telegraphy—The Morse System—Improvements in Telegraphy—Ocean Telegraphy. IV. Hello! Hello!—Invention of the Telephone—Principle of the Telephone—Transmitter and Receiver—Uses of the Telephone—The Phonograph, Gramophone, and Graphophone. V. Dynamo and Motor:—The First Motor—Perfection of the Dynamo—How it generates Electricity—Principle and Uses of the Motor. VI. “And there was Light:”—Various Lights of the Past—Era of Electric Lighting—Arc and Incandescent Lamps—Principles of Each—Value of Electric Light. VII. Electric Locomotion:—Passing of the Horse and Traction Car—Introduction of the Trolley—Features of the Electric Railway—The Storage Battery and Horseless Carriage. VIII. The X Ray:—Discovery of—What the X Ray is—Photographing by Means of the X Ray. IX. Other Electrical Wonders:—Electric Clocks—Electrotyping and Electroplating, etc. X. Electrical Language 19–54

THE CENTURY’S NAVAL PROGRESS

I. Influence of Sea Power:—Sea Powers throughout the World—Enumeration of Great Naval Wars. II. The Century’s Growth in Naval Strength:—American Navies at Different Eras—European Fleets—South American and Chinese Navies. III. The Battleship Past and Present:—The Old Fighting Frigate—Evolution of the Modern Man-of-War—Comparison of Frigate with Ironclad. IV. Progress of Naval Engineering:—Nelson’s Vision—The 14,500 Miles Steaming of the Oregon—Revolution in Mechanism and Material—Types of Great Battleships—Introduction and Advantages of Steam—Invention of the Screw Propeller—Improvement in Boilers and Engines—The Revolving Turret—Cruiser and Torpedo Craft—Phenomenal Speed. V. The Growth of Ordnance:—Description of Various Guns and Projectiles—Power of Modern Explosives. VI. The Development of Armor:—Its Necessity in Naval Warfare—How it is made, tested, and put on. VII. The Ram and Torpedo:—Evolution of the Ram—Introduction of the Torpedo—Various Kinds of Torpedoes. VIII. The United States Fleet:—Whence it sprang and how it has grown—Its Ships, Officers, and Men—Official Naval Ranks—The Naval Academy—Passage of the United States to a World Power 55–86

ASTRONOMY DURING THE CENTURY

I. Astronomy a Century ago:—Discovery of Uranus. II. How “Bode’s Law” promoted Research:—Further Discovery of Planets—Celestial Photography. III. How Neptune was found:—Le Verrier, “First Astronomer of the Age.” IV. Meteorites:—Meteoric Showers—Various Large Meteorites. V. Do Meteors often strike the Earth:—The “Fire-ball” of 1860. VI. Astronomical Observatories:—Their Equipment and Work—Number of Observatories. VII. Improved Instruments:—Their Effect on the Science. VIII. The Spectroscope:—Its Triumphs—Elements discovered. IX. Work in a Large Observatory:—Discovery of Comets and Nebulæ. X. Washington National Observatory:—Its Instruments. XI. Star Maps and Catalogues:—Number of Stars—The Planisphere. XII. Astronomical Books and Writers:—Number of Students of Astronomy. XIII. Practical Uses of Astronomy:—Its Help in Navigation—Uses in Geodesy. XIV. Notable Astronomical Epochs:—Clock Regulation—Invention of Chronograph and Spectroscope—Great Telescopes. XV. Discarded Theories:—Are Planets inhabited—The Orrery. XVI. Future Astronomical Problems:—How long will the Sun endure? 87–104

STORY OF PLANT AND FLOWER

Early History of Botany—The Father of Modern Botany—Botany at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century—Natural System of Classification—Advance in Study of Plant Behavior—Illustrations from the Peanut and Grape-vine—Plant Motions as regards Forms—Origin and Development of Plant Life—The Doctrine of Evolution—Nutrition of Plants—Fertilization of Flowers—Insectivorous and Cruel Plants—Vegetable Physiology—Advance in Relation to Cryptogamic Plants—Geographical Botany—Herbariums and Botanical Gardens 105–114

PROGRESS OF WOMEN WITHIN THE CENTURY

Woman’s Misconception of her Rights—Former Oppression—Cosmic and Moral Processes—What Christianity has done for Women—Hardship of the Pauline Grip—The True Mission of Woman—Improvement in her Education—Female Occupations—Competition with Men—Woman in the Literary Field—In Philanthropy and Morals—Women’s Clubs—Woman in Politics—The constantly Broadening Field of Woman’s Influence 115–124

THE CENTURY’S TEXTILE PROGRESS

Antiquity of Textile Industry—The Distaff, Spindle, and Loom among Chinese, Egyptians, and Greeks—Introduction of the Spinning-wheel—Loom of the Eighteenth Century—The Fly-shuttle—Textiles at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century—Invention of the Spinning Jenny—Arkwright’s Drawing-rollers—Whitney’s Cotton-gin—Its Influence—Invention of the Spinning-mule—The Spinning-frame—Rapid Improvements in Spinning Machinery—Evolution of the Spindle—Increase of Speed—Introduction of the Carding-machine—Carding-combs—Advent of Power-looms—Description of their Machinery and Products—The Jacquard Loom—Of Pile Fabrics—The Bigelow Loom—How Tufted Pile Fabrics are made—Weaving of Fancy Cloths—Various Forms of Looms—Hair-cloth Looms—Weaving of Tubular Fabrics—Infinitude of Uses to which the Loom can be put—The Coming Automatic Loom—Advent of the Knitting-machine—Its Wonderful Perfection and Products—The Century’s Patents of Textile Machinery—Beauty of Textile Art—Its Influence on Taste and Comfort 125–146

THE CENTURY’S RELIGIOUS PROGRESS

Religious Status in Eighteenth Century, in England, France, and on the Continent—Condition in the United States—The Reign of Skepticism—Doctrinal Divisions in the Churches—The Nineteenth Century Revival—Variety and Growth of Religions in the United States—Freedom of the Church—Kinship of Denominations—Increase in Material and Spiritual Forces—Church Edifices and Capacities—Religious Population—Number of Communicants—Distribution of Communicants—Ministers and Organizations—Missionary Enterprises—Service of Religion in Education, Philanthropy, and Reform—Gifts to Educational Institutions—Growth of Charitable Institutions—Religion and Republican Institutions 147–158

GREAT GROWTH OF LIBRARIES

Antiquity of Libraries—Evidences of Civilized Progress—Character of Ancient Writings—Books of Clay—Mesopotamian Literature—Egyptian Hieroglyphics—Papyrus Manuscripts—Sacred Books of Thoth—Greek Libraries—Their Number and Extent—Roman Libraries—Imperial Library of Constantinople—Effects of Christianity upon Literature—Church Book-making and Collecting—All Books written or copied by Priests—Fate of Monastic Libraries—Early Libraries in France—Royal Libraries in Europe—The French National Library—Introduction of Copyright—Growth and Extent of European Libraries—Their Location and Management—The British Museum—Libraries of Great Britain—Canadian Libraries—English Colonial Libraries—Libraries of the Latin Republics—Phenomenal Growth of Libraries in the United States—Wide Ramification of the System—The Oldest United States Library—Colonial Libraries—Libraries of 1800—Number founded during the Century—State Libraries—School-district Libraries—Library Systems—The Library of Congress—Its Vast Extent and New Repository—Copyright System—United States Free Libraries—Noted Libraries of the Country—Libraries of over 100,000 Volumes—Munificence of Library Founders—Noted Givers to Libraries—Progress in Library Management 159–170

PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY IN ARCHITECTURE

English Architecture at the Beginning of the Century—The Queen Anne Style—French Architecture and Architects—Architectural Styles in Germany, Austria, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and throughout Europe—Canadian Styles and Notable Buildings—Early Architecture in the United States—Old New England and Southern Homes—The Colonial Styles—The White House and United States Capitol—Progress in Public Building Architecture—Notable Changes after the War of 1812—The Gothic Cottage and Italian Villa—The First School of Architecture—Comparison of Styles in Different Cities—Introduction of Iron—Styles for Hotels and Summer Resorts—Effect of Chicago and Boston Fires on Architecture—How the Centennial Exposition changed Styles—Church and Library Architecture—The Congressional Library and Other Notable Specimens of American Architecture—Advent of the Sky-scraper—General Review of Architectural Effects—Monumental Works the Poetry of Architecture 171–190

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY

Status of Chemical Science at Beginning of the Century—The Century’s Main Lines of Progress: I. Inorganic and Physical Chemistry:—Lavoisier’s Cardinal Propositions—Rapid Advance of Chemical Science—Sir Humphrey Davy’s Achievements—Elementary Bodies of Eighteenth Century—Same in Nineteenth Century. II. Physical Chemistry:—Properties of Elements—Of Matter and Energy—Rates of Reaction—Conditions of Equilibrium. III. Organic Chemistry:—Of Carbon Compounds—Theory of Substitution—Atoms in the Molecule—Space Relations—The Carbon Atom—The Organic Body. IV. Analytical Chemistry:—Development of the Blow-pipe—Gas Analysis—Electricity as a Factor—Discovery of Spectrum Analysis. V. Synthetical Chemistry:—Building up of Complex Forms—Synthesis of Coloring Matters and Sugars—Future Food of Man. VI. Metallurgical Chemistry:—Oldest Branch of Chemical Science—Reduction of Ores—Advantage to Agriculture. VII. Agricultural Chemistry:—Utilization of Fertilizers—Nitrogen as a Plant Food—Advantages to Practical Agriculture. VIII. Graphic Chemistry:—Fundamental Principles—Daguerreotype and Photograph. IX. Didactic Chemistry:—The Student and the Laboratory—Advantages of Laboratory Training. X. Chemistry of Fermentation:—Bacterial Action—Process of Digestion—Decay of Meats and Vegetables—Sterilization—Fermentation. XI. Electro-Chemistry:—Combination of Carbon with Metals—Uses of Electricity in Chemistry. Conclusion. 191–206

THE CENTURY’S MUSIC AND DRAMA

I. Eighteenth Century Music:—Leading Composers—Nineteenth Century Music—The Great Composers and their Works—Different Schools and Styles of Composition—Analysis of Operas—Musical Characteristics of the Nations—Verdi and Wagner compared—The American Opera. II. The Drama:—The Theatre of the Past—Great Modern Improvement—Scenery and Appointments—Actors and Actresses—The Century’s Illustrious Role—Theatres in the United States—Character of Actors—Public Estimation of the Drama 207–214

THE CENTURY’S LITERATURE

Contrast with Eighteenth Century Literature—Tone of Modern Literature—How it types Progress—English Literature—Literature of Other Nations—Various Authors—English Criticism of American Literature—Newspaper Literature—Evolution of the Newspaper—Newspapers of the Nations—Nineteenth Century Journalism—Beginning of Newspaper Enterprise in the United States—Colonial Papers—Papers of the Revolution—Appearance of the Daily—The Penny Press—Newspaper Growth up to 1861—War Journalism—The Sunday Newspaper—Illustrated Journalism—Reaction in Newspaper Prices—Cost of running a Newspaper—Number of World’s Newspapers—The Comic Paper—Evolution of the Magazine—Growth of Magazine in the United States—Character of Magazine Literature—Advent of the Cheap Magazine—Features of Publication 215–230

THE RECORDS OF THE PAST

Extension of Knowledge into the Past—Spade of the Archæologist—General View of the Revelations—Documents of Stone, Clay, and Papyrus—Assyrian Revelations—Egyptian Explorations—Eloquence of Obelisk, Tomb, and Pyramid—Cuneiform Scripts of Babylon—Discovery of the Rosetta Stone—Champollion’s Key—Story of the Ruins in Greece and Rome—Revelation of Temples and Statues—Phœnician Remains—The Moabite Stone—Ruins in Palestine—Revelations in Jerusalem—Hittite Remains—Continuing Interest in Archæological Discovery—Vast Importance from an Historic Point of View 231–244

PROGRESS IN DAIRY FARMING

Requisites for Successful Dairying—Enterprise of Dairying Districts—Advantages of Dairying—Dairying Areas—Dairying at the Beginning of the Century—Early Methods—The Great Change midway of the Century—Improvement in Milch Cows—Growth of Cheese-Making—Institution of Creameries—Application of Mechanics to Dairying—Dairy Associations—Best Dairy Breeds—Invention of the Separator—Its Operation and Advantages—The Fat-test for Milk—Growth in Butter-making Illustrated—Labor in Dairying—Dairy and Food Commissions—Dairying Publications—City Milk Supplies—Annual Production of Cheese—Character of Cheeses—Annual Butter Product—Butter and Cheese-producing States—Number and Value of Cows—Dairy Values as compared with Value of Other Products—Necessity for guarding Dairy Interests. 245–260

THE CENTURY’S MORAL PROGRESS

Morals among the Ancients—Moral Precepts common to all Communities—Evolution of Ethics—Early Christian Morals—Spirit of the Reformation—Low Moral Condition of the Eighteenth Century—Birth of a New Moral Epoch—A National Conscience—Abolition of Slavery—Larger Application of the Principles of Right and Justice—How Women are affected—Effect of Invention and Education on Social and Moral Conditions—Broadening of Woman’s Sphere—Increase of Self-respect—Influence of Women on Moral Status—Legislation and Morals—How to meet Ethical Problems—Business Success and the Moral State—Rights and Duties of Capital and Labor—Cruelties of War and Blessings of Peace—The Century’s Moral Gain—Changed Treatment of Vice and Poverty—The Principle of Well-doing—Growth of Tolerance and Altruism—A Higher Individual and Public Conscience 261–270

PROGRESS OF SANITARY SCIENCE

Hygienic Code of Moses—Hippocrates and Disease—Sanitation and Sanitary Science—Foundation Rules—Spirit of Scientific Investigation—Effect of Act of Parliament of 1837—Value of Official Figures—The Riddle of Samson—Health Reports in United States—Duty of Separate States—Mortality in London of Filth Diseases—Progress of Sanitation—Diminution of Scourges—Effect of Sanitation upon the Weak and Helpless—Value of Culture Tubes—Discovery of Disease Causes—Of Trichinæ in Pork—Communicable Diseases caused by Living Organisms—Infectious and Contagious Diseases—Uses of Biology in Sanitary Science—Purification of Waters—Of Consumption and Cholera—Effects of Filtration—What Bacteria are—Of Isolation and Disinfection—Modern Quarantines—Fumigation of Ships—Lowering of Death Rates—Influence of the Sanitarium—Improved Construction of Dwellings—Care for Paving and Sewage—Disposal of Refuse—Of Food Inspection—State Boards of Health—Care of Employees—Of Play and Athletic Grounds—Public Breathing Spaces—Duty of Caring for Personal Health—Bearing of Public Health on Community and Nation 271–282

THE CENTURY’S ARMIES AND ARMS

Armies and Arms of the Eighteenth Century—Alteration in War Methods—European Army Systems—Changes made by Napoleon—Battle Weapons and Tactical Movements—Growing Use of Cannon—The Congreve Rocket—Infantry Formations—The Introduction of the Rifle—The Crimean War and Rifled Siege Guns—The Italian War and Rifled Cannon—Advent of the Breech-loader—Introduction of Heavy Guns—Arms and Tactics in the Civil War—Use of Steam and Electricity in War—Advantage of Railroad and Telegraph—Introduction of Armored Vessels—Siege Artillery—Advent of the Machine Gun—New System of Entrenchment—German Military System—Coming of the Needle Gun—French Military System—Comparison of Russian and Turkish Methods—Strength of the World’s Armies—United States Army Organization—Steel Guns and Smokeless Powder—Improvement in Mortars—The Dynamite Gun—Modern Shrapnel—Sea-Coast Guns—Perfection of Modern Rifles—Their Great Range and Power—The Gatling Gun—The Maxim Automatic—Introduction of the Torpedo—General Review of the Increase in Military Efficiency 283–306

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE

I. Vicissitudes of Early Farming:—First National Road—Canal Building—Coming of Railroads—Farming Conditions before the 50’s—Hardships of Marketing. II. Improvements in Farm Implements and Machinery:—Farmers’ Draft upon Nature—The Sickle, Flail, and Cradle—Coming of Harvesters—Improvement in Threshers—Portable and Traction Engines—Separators and Stackers—Improvements in Other Implements. III. Improvement in Stock:—Various Breeds of Cattle—Breeding of Horses, Sheep, and Swine—Best Breeds. IV. Improvement in Farming Methods:—In Drainage—Care of Animals—Barns and Stabling—Proper Food Rations—Fencing. V. Home Improvements:—Home Architecture—The Yard and Garden—Maintaining Soil Fertility—Proper Manures—Soil Analysis—Use of Modern Fertilizers. VI. Improvement in Agricultural Knowledge:—Agricultural Literature—Farmers’ Clubs and Institutes—Granges—Agricultural Colleges—Experimental Stations—The Department of Agriculture—Bureau of Animal Industry—Agricultural Newspapers and Periodicals—Summary of Agricultural Progress 307–338

PROGRESS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

I. An Introductory View:—Antiquity of Engineering—Ancient Roads and Bridges—Nineteenth Century Advances. II. Bridges:—Primitive Bridges—Iron and Steel Bridges—The Brooklyn Bridge—Niagara Suspension Bridge—Pecos River Viaduct—The Forth Bridge—Remarkable Arches—Stone Bridges. III. Caissons:—Invention of the Caisson—Its Principle and Use—Caisson Adventures. IV. Canals:—The First Suez Canal—Nicaragua and Panama Canals—Modern Suez Canal—The Manchester Canal—Chicago Drainage Canal—What it is for. V. Geodesy:—Ancient Methods of Earth Measurements—The Century’s Advance in Methods of Measurement. VI. Railroads:—Their Invention and Development—Immense Value. VII. Tunnels:—Ancient Origin of—Tunnels of Egypt, Babylonia, and India—Roman Tunnels—Of the Modern Tunnel—Advance in Machinery and Constructive Processes—Mount Cenis Tunnel—Tunnel Surveying and Excavating—The Hoosac Tunnel—St. Gothard Tunnel—St. Clair Tunnel—Its Construction and Commercial Effects 339–360

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD

I. Of Animal Diseases:—Effect of Napoleonic Wars—Various Animal Diseases—How controlled. II. Increase in Number of Animals:—Showing in Europe, United States, and Other Countries. III. Improvement of Breeds:—Shortening the Time of Growth—Development of Dairy and Beef Breeds—Improvement in Wool Growing—Poultry Breeds—Thoroughbred Horses—The American Trotter—Animal Exports—Foreign Animal Imports—Displacement of Horses by Mechanical Motors—Prices of Animal Products—American Command of World’s Animal Markets 361–374

LEADING WARS OF THE CENTURY

I. Wars of the United States:—First War with Barbary States—Indian Wars—War of 1812—Battles by Land and Sea—Exploits on the Lakes—Victory of New Orleans—Second War with Barbary States—The Mexican War—General Taylor’s Victories—Siege of Vera Cruz—General Scott’s March and Battles—Capture of Mexico—Results of the War—The Civil War, 1861–65—Secession of States—Calling out the Armies—Building of the Navies—The First Battles—Operations in 1862—Battles of 1863—The Emancipation Proclamation—The Turning Point at Gettysburg—Opening of the Mississippi—Chickamauga and Missionary Ridge—Battles of 1864—Appomattox and Surrender—The Spanish-American War—Its Causes—Destruction of Spanish Fleet in Manila Bay—Destruction of Cervera’s Fleet—Capitulation of Santiago—Invasion of Porto Rico. II. Foreign Wars:—Wars of Napoleon—Battle of Marengo—Treaty of Amiens—Third Coalition against France—Battle of Austerlitz—Nelson’s Victory at Trafalgar—Wars of the Fourth Coalition—Wars of the Fifth Coalition—Wars of the Sixth Coalition—Battle of Waterloo—Final Defeat of Napoleon—Greek Wars for Independence—Battle of Navarino—Greek Independence—French Revolution of 1830—Polish Insurrection—England’s Wars in India—French Republic of 1848—Hungarian Wars for Independence—Italian Wars—The Crimean War—Sebastopol and Balaklava—Peace of Paris—The Indian Mutiny—Wars of the Alliance against Austria—Battle of Solferino—Danish Wars—Wars for German Unity—Verdict of Sadowa—The Franco-Prussian War—Siege and Capture of Paris—The French Republic—The Turco-Russian War—Chino-Japanese War—Greco-Turkish War—Interference of the Powers—Wars in the Soudan—Review of the Century’s Martial Results 375–420

THE CENTURY’S FAIRS AND EXPOSITIONS

The Primitive Fair—Growth and Influence of Fairs—Their History in Different Countries—Of Agricultural Fairs, Societies, and Institutes—Their Origin and Purpose—National and State Agricultural Departments—Sanitary Fairs—Special Exhibitions—Evolution of International Expositions—The First World’s Exposition at London—Expositions at Dublin, Paris, New York—Continental Expositions—Second and Third Expositions at London and Paris—The Vienna Exposition—The Centennial at Philadelphia—Description of Subsequent Expositions at Atlanta, Louisville, New Orleans, Chicago, Nashville, and Omaha—The American Commercial Museums 421–442

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN COINAGE, CURRENCY, AND BANKING

I. Banks and Banking Resources:—Banks as Gauges of Wealth—Civilization reflected in Monetary Machinery—Features of United States Financial Policy—Gold Store of Various Countries—Banking Resources—Number and Resources of Banks. II. Coinage and Production of Precious Metals:—Why Gold is a Standard—Primitive Measures of Value—History of Coinage—First United States Mint—Coin Ratios—Gold and Silver Production and Mintage—Exports and Imports of Precious Metals—Circulation per Capita—Coinage Act of 1873. III. Early Banking in the United States:—First Banking Associations—First United States Bank and its Branches—Early State Banks—Second United States Bank—How it fell—State Banks and Independent Treasury. IV. History of Legal Tender Notes:—The Treasury Reserve—Treasury Notes—Manner of Issue and Redemption. V. The National Banking System:—Formation of National Banks—Law’s and Regulations—Number and Circulation. VI. Foreign Banking and Finance:—Banks of England and the Continent of Europe—Their Strength and Methods. VII. United States Government Debt since 1857:—Gross Receipts and Expenditures—Interest Charges. VIII. Postal Savings Banks:—Why they are not adopted in the United States. IX. Savings Banks in the United States:—Their Number and Strength. X. The Clearing House:—How conducted—Its Economic Uses. XI. Panics of the Century and Their Causes 443–470

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN FRUIT CULTURE

Early Cultivation of Fruits—Beauty and Uses of Fruits—Fruits brought to the New World—Culture at the Beginning of the Century—Early Fruit Districts—The Experimental Stage—Pioneers in Culture—The Age of Progress—First Commercial Orchards—The Age of Triumph—Spread of Culture in Various States and Areas—Revolution in Science of Fruit Growing—Success and Failure of Different Species—Vine Culture—Improved Culture with Implements—Home Consumption and Export of Fruits—Our Fruits a Favorite in Europe—Apple Culture—Uses of Apples—Typical Orchards—Notable Varieties—Extent of Apple Orchards—Apple Exports—Progress in the Culture of Other Fruits—Varieties and Best Soils—History and Progress of Berry Culture—The Citrous Fruits—Where and how grown—Their Great Value to Man—General Review of Fruit Culture and Fruits 471–490

THE CENTURY’S COMMERCIAL PROGRESS

I. World’s Commerce at End of Eighteenth Century:—Methods of Traffic—Volume of Trade. II. Revolution in Commerce:—Change from Sails to Steam—First Ocean Steamers—Steamship Lines—Change from Wood to Iron—The Compound Engine—Advent of Steel Vessels—The Twin Screw—Immense Size of Ships—Their Great Velocity—Appointment and Service. III. Improvement in Commercial Auxiliaries:—Betterment of Waterways—Ship Canals—Harbor Improvements—Cable and Banking Facilities. IV. Expansion of International Trade:—European Commercial Growth—Food Importations. V. Trade of the United States:—Extent of Domestic and Foreign—Vast Extension—Imports and Exports—Character of. VI. The American Marine:—Former Carrying Trade—Modern Carrying Trade—Decline of United States Maritime Importance. VII. American Shipbuilding. VIII. Causes for the Century’s Commercial Progress:—Economic, Political, and Social Causes. IX. The Twentieth Century Prospect 491–514

EDUCATION DURING THE CENTURY

Education a Hundred Years ago—Pestalozzi’s Influence—Froebel’s Kindergarten System—Its Introduction into the United States—English and German Schools—Great European Teachers—Foundation of Public School Systems in the United States—The Battles for Public Schools—Immensity of Common School Systems—Number of Schools and Pupils—Expenditure for Schools—Primitive Schoolhouses—Old-time Teachers and Methods—The Modern Schoolhouse—Improvements in Teachers and Methods—Of the High School—College and University—Teachers’ Institutes—State Associations—School Publications—National Bureau of Education—Normal Schools—Teachers’ Salaries—Girls’ Seminaries—Change to Female Teachers—Modern School Furnishings—Text-books—University Courses of Lectures—Schools of Manual Training and Business—Education of the Negro Race—Experiment of Booker T. Washington—School Funds—Compulsory Education 515–542

“THE ART PRESERVATIVE”

I. The Printing Press:—Printing Art in the Eighteenth Century—Franklin’s Influence—The Hand Press—Various Improved Presses—Coming of the Power Press—Order of the Countries in Printing Progress—Impetus to Printing in the United States—Wonderful Improvement in Presses—How a Swift-motioned Press operates—Quadruple Presses—Printing, Folding, and Pasting—Counting and Delivering—The Sextuple Press—Its Wonderful Achievements—Color Printing Presses. II. The Setting of Type:—The Art at the Beginning of the Century—Dawn of Mechanical Composition—First Type-setting Machines—The Linotype—How it sets Type. III. Other Events in the Printing Line:—Old Methods of spreading News—Modern Electric Methods—Cables and Overland Wires—Vast Extent of Newspapers—Code Systems. IV. Type-making, Stereotyping, and Picture-making:—From Wood to Metal Type—Introduction of the Type Foundry—The Stereotyping Process—How it preserves Type—Introduction of Electrotyping—Its Advantages in Printing—Disappearance of Wood Engraving—The Art of Illustration—Triumph of Mechanical Processes in Printing—Tendency of the Future 543–570

PROGRESS IN MINES AND MINING

Search for American Mines—Progress of Mining prior to 1800—Methods at Beginning of the Century—Coal Mining Methods—Hoisting and Ventilation—Introduction of Steam—European and South American Mines—Mining in the United States—Opening of Mines—Various Working Appliances—Invention of Davy’s Safety Lamp—The Safety Fuse—Mine Elevators—Mining at the Middle of the Century—Gold and Copper Mines of United States—Uses of Man Engine—Hoisting Machines—Pumping Engines—Introduction of Machine and Dynamite—Uses of Compressed Air—Mine Ventilation—Improved Fans—Coal-cutting Machines—Placer and Hydraulic Mining for Gold—The Timbering of Mines—Lake Superior Iron Mining—Room Mining—Rise of Mining Schools and Societies—Mining Laws in England and United States—Unwise Action of Congress—Mining Claims and Rights—Miners’ Qualifications 571–586

ART PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY

I. Painting:—Effect of the French Revolution on Fine Art—Rapid Advance of French Art—Artists and their Works—Revolution of 1830—English Art and Artists—Landscape Art—Millet’s “Angelus”—The Landseer Family—Ruskin’s Influence on English Art—Edwin Abbey as a Colorist—Works of Rosa Bonheur—Later English Masters—Continental Artists—American Masters—Rise of American Art Schools—Their Influence on Art—Some Distinguished Schools—Era of Excessive Coloring—American Landscapes—Women Artists of America—Their Style and Influence—Scandinavian Artists—Modern Art in Scotland—Masterpieces in European Galleries—Masters of Current Art in America—Some of their Great Works. II. Sculpture:—Old World Sculptors at Beginning of Century—Centres of the Art—Advance in Different Countries—Masterpieces—American Sculpture—Notable Artists and their Works—Characteristics of Sculptors—Effect of the Columbian Exposition—Names and Works of Modern Sculptors 587–614

THE CENTURY’S ADVANCE IN SURGERY

Surgery at the Dawn of the Century—Methods in Early Part of the Century—Discovery of Anæsthesia—Its Great Advantages—Antiseptic Surgery—Healing by First Intent—Setting of Fractures—Modern Treatment of Bone Diseases—Of Amputations—Control of Hemorrhages—Advance in Wound Treatment—Surgery of the Alimentary Canal—Stomach Surgery—Kidney and Bladder Surgery—Hernia or Rupture—Of Diseases of Female Organs—Modern Brain Surgery—Its Wonderful Advance—Astounding Operations—The Röntgen or X Rays—Their Value in Surgery—General Review of Surgical Progress 615–630

PROGRESS OF MEDICINE

Early Medical Science—Progress to Beginning of Nineteenth Century—Famous Ancient Physicians—Noted Schools of Medicine—Medical Charlatans—Evolution of Medical Remedies—Important Changes in Treatment—First American Schools of Medicine—Advance in Materia Medica—Growth of Medical Associations—Medical Literature—High Standard of Modern Medical Education—Students and Colleges—Tendency to Special Practice—Great Importance of Modern Medical Discoveries—Use of Anæsthetics in Medicine—Advance in Physiology and Anatomy—Importance of Trained Nurses—Review of Medical Progress 631–642

EVOLUTION OF THE RAILWAY

First Railways—Vast Development—Uses of Railways—Importance to Farmers and Producers—Various Railway Systems—Government Ownership and Operation—Mileage of Railways—The World’s Great Railways—Methods of building and operating Railways in Different Countries—Bridge Structures—Use of Steel Rails—Railway Signals—The Block System—Single and Double Tracks—First Steam Locomotives—Weight and Power of Modern Locomotives—The Old-fashioned Passenger Car—Luxury of the Modern Palace Car—Improvement in Freight Cars—The Modern Air-brake—Advance in Train Equipment and Service—Rates of Speed—Railway Mail Service—Passenger and Freight Rates—Railway as compared with Water Transportation—Railway Labor—Relief Associations and Insurance—Mountain Railways—Rapid Transit—Military Railways—Portable and Ship Railways 643–664

ADVANCE IN LAW AND JUSTICE

Progress in International Law—Its Subdivisions—Law-making Bodies—Powers and Duties of Legislators—Courts of Justice—Duties of Judges—Of Jurors—Of Civil Procedure—Codification of Laws—Criminal Jurisprudence—Punishments for Crimes—Capital Punishment—Police Powers—Rights of Married Women under Law—Laws regarding Parents and Children—Transfer of Real Estate—Copyright Laws—Their Effect on Publication—Admiralty Laws—Of Seamen and Shipping—Advance in Corporation Laws—Laws relating to Religion—Of Religious Freedom—General Review of Legal Progress 665–676

EVOLUTION OF BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS

I. General Principles:—Objects and Uses of Building Associations—Explanation of the System—The Various Plans of Operation—Loan Series—Maturity and Payment of Shares—Cost of Shares and Loans—Early History of These Associations—Their Character abroad—History of American Associations—The First Founded—Eulogies of Building Societies—Vast Membership and Capital—Management in Respective States—Amounts returned to Members—Teachers of Practical Thrift—Value of One’s Own Home—Comfort for Those of Modest Means—Makers of Better Citizens—Duties of Officers and Members—Responsibility of Members—Size and Cost of Houses usually built—Typical Houses—The Social Features of Building Societies 677–690

EPOCH-MAKERS OF THE CENTURY

Statesmen, Orators, and Jurists—Great Generals—Naval Heroes—Noted Preachers and Teachers—Eminent Historians—Distinguished Editors—Noted Scientists—Leading Philanthropists—Famous Inventors—Popular Novelists—Greatest Poets—Best Actors and Lyric Dramatists 691–720

СПИСОК ИЛЛЮСТРАЦИЙ

PAGE

“Triumphs and Wonders of the XIX Century” Frontispiece

Puck 19

Old Franklin Electrical Machine 20

Leyden Jar 22

Franklin Institute, Philadelphia 23

Induction Coil 25

Magnetic Fields of Force 26

Daniell’s Cells 27

Morse Telegraph and Battery 27

Samuel Finley Breese Morse 28

Cyrus W. Field 28

Ocean Cable 29

Great Eastern laying an Ocean Cable 31

A String Telephone 32

Thomas Alva Edison. Full page 32

A Graphophone 35

A Dynamo 37

The Golden Candlestick 39

An Ancient Lamp 39

A Tallow Dip 40

Modern Lamp 40

Electric Arc Light 43

Electric Locomotive. From Electrical Age 45

Electric Railway—Third Rail System 47

Geissler’s Tubes 49

Sciagraph or Shadow Picture 50

An August Morning with Farragut 56

British Battleship Majestic 57

French Battleship Magenta 57

German Battleship Woerth 58

Italian Battleship Sardegna 59

Nelson’s Flagship Victory 60

Constitution (1812) under Sail. Permission of the artist. Full page 61

Side View of Constitution. Full page 63

The U. S. Steamship Oregon. Copyright by W. H. Rau. Full page 65

Action between Monitor and Merrimac 66

The Turbinia—Fastest Craft afloat. Permission of S. S. McClure Co. 67

Engine of U. S. Steamship Powhatan, A. D. 1849. Full page 68

Engine of U. S. Steamer Ericcson 69

Battle of Trafalgar. Full page 71

The Growth of Ordnance. Four cuts. Full page 73

The Distribution of Armor. Twelve cuts. Full page 78–79

The Growth of Armor. Eight cuts. Full page 81

The Movement of Uranus and Neptune 89

Professor James H. Coffin 91

The Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cal. Full page 93

The Spectroscope 94

Yerkes Telescope, University of Chicago. Full page 95

Professor William Harkness 97

Zenith Telescope, made for University of Pennsylvania 100

Three-inch Transit. By Warner & Swasey 103

Carolus Linnæus of Sweden 105

The Green Rose 106

Head of White Clover, with Branch from Centre 107

The Peanut-Pod Magnified 108

Outline of White Dogwood Flower 109

Yellow Toad-Flax in Peloria State 110

Grained Corn-Tassel 111

Banana Flowers 112

The Cruel Plant 113

Old Potato penetrated by Rootlet 113

Fungus growing from Head of Caterpillar 114

Mary Elizabeth Lease 117

Emma Willard 119

George Eliot 121

Frances Willard 123

Distaff and Spindle 126

Spinning Wheel 126

Primitive Hand Loom 127

Early Spinning Jenny 128

Ginning Cotton. Old way prior to 1800 129

Ginning Cotton. New way 129

The Modern Mule 130

Hand Comb of the Eighteenth Century 131

Noble Comb of 1890 132

Plain Power Loom, 1840 133

Weaving. The Old Way 135

Weaving. The New Way 135

Loom of 1890 136

Jacquard Machine 137

Smith and Skinner Loom for Moquette Carpets 139

Circular Loom 141

The First Knitting Machine, Lee 143

Knitting in the Old Way 145

Knitting in the New Way 146

Ancient Birmingham Meeting-house 148

Salisbury Cathedral, England. Full page 148

P. E. Cathedral of St. John the Divine (?) 150

Father Damien, Missionary to Leper Colony 151

Young Men’s Christian Association, Philadelphia 153

Baptist Mission School, Japan 155

Methodist Episcopal Hospital 157

The New Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. Full page 161

Ridgway Branch of Philadelphia Library. Full page 163

Public Library of the City of Boston. By permission of librarian. Full page 164

John Russell Young 166

Carnegie Free Library, Pittsburgh. Full page 169

Arc de l’Étoile, Paris 173

Natural History Museum, Kensington, London. Full page 175

Glass Covered Arcade, Milan 177

United States Capitol, Washington, D. C. Full page 179

The White House, Washington, D. C. Full page 180

Library Building, University of Virginia 181

Trinity Church, New York. Full page 183

St. George’s Hall, Philadelphia 185

Trinity Church, Boston 187

American Surety Company’s Building, New York 188

Sir Humphrey Davy 192

Michael Faraday 197

William Crookes, F. R. S. 200

Sir Henry Bessemer 202

Louis Jacques Daguerre 203

Louis Pasteur 205

Beethoven in His Study. Full page 208

Giuseppe Verdi 208

Grand Opera House, Paris 209

Metropolitan Opera House, New York 210

William Richard Wagner 211

Edwin Forrest 211

Charlotte Saunders Cushman 212

Scenes from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Full page 213

George Bancroft 216

John G. Whittier 217

Alfred Tennyson 218

Henry W. Longfellow 219

Benjamin Franklin 223

Horace Greeley 224

John W. Forney 225

Joseph Medill 226

Record Building, Philadelphia. Full page 227

The “Black Obelisk” of Shalmaneser II 232

The Moabite Stone. Full page 232

Ruins of Philæ, Egypt. Full page 235

So-called Sarcophagus of Alexander the Great 239

Cuneiform Letters from Lachish 241

Arch of Titus, Rome 242

Hittite Inscription from Jerabis. Full page 243

A Typical Dairy Farm. Full page 247

Modern Creamery and Cheese Factory 249

A Typical Dairy Cow—Ayrshire 251

Centrifugal Cream Separator in Operation. Full page 253

Milk Tester (Open) 254

Butter-making on Farm—The Old Way. Full page 255

Butter-making—The New Way 257

The Dairy Maid. Full page 259

Czar Alexander II., of Russia 265

Sir Edward Bulwer 266

Captain Alfred Dreyfus 269

Mortality Chart 273

Map Showing “Registration States” 275

Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania. Full page 277

Sand Filter Bed 279

A Quarantine Station 281

Old Style Shrapnel 284

Congreve Rocket 285

Minié Ball 286

United States Rifle Musket, 1855 286

General Winfield Scott. Full page 286

Armstrong Field Gun 287

Rodman Gun 288

Old Smooth-bore Mortar 289

Spencer Carbine 291

Metallic Cartridge of 1864–65 292

Prismatic Powder 298

Mortar on Revolving Hoist. Full page 299

Modern Shrapnel 301

Krag-Jorgensen Rifle 302

Penetrating Power of Guns and Bullets. Full page 303

Gatling Gun 304

Nordenfeldt Rapid Fire Gun 305

Soil Pulverizer. Furnished by author 309

Columbia Harvester and Binder. Furnished by author 311

Improved Thresher, with Blower and Self-feeder. Furnished by author 312

Automatic Stacker with Folding Attachment. Furnished by author 313

Disc Harrow. H. P. Denocher & Co., Hamilton, Ont. 314

Acme Harrow. Furnished by author 315

Double Corn Cultivator. Long-Alstatten Co., Hamilton, Ont. 317

Modern Clover Huller. Gaar, Scoot & Co., Richmond, Ind. 319

Hereford Cow, “Lady Laurel.” Furnished by author 320

Group of Aberdeen-Angus Cattle. Courtesy of D. Bradford & Son, Aberdeen, O. 321

Jersey Cow, “Ida,” of St. Lambert. Miller & Sibley, Franklin, Pa. 322

Poland-China Hog. Furnished by author 323

Merino Sheep. John Pow & Son, Salem, O. 325

Double Corn Planter. H. P. Denocher & Co., Hamilton, Ont. 326

Hand Garden Plow. H. P. Denocher & Co., Hamilton, Ont. 327

Success Anti-Clog Weeder. D. Y. Hallock & Co., York, Pa. 331

Aspinwall Potato Planter. Furnished by author 335

Brooklyn Suspension Bridge. Full page 341

The Niagara Railway Arch. Courtesy of Grand Trunk R. R. Full page 343

The Firth of Forth Bridge, General View. Credit “Bridges,” Chicago. Full page 344

Pecos River Viaduct 345

Formal Opening of Suez Canal 347

Manchester Ship Canal 349

Complete Rock Cut Chicago Drainage Canal. Courtesy of Lidgerwood Man. Co. Full page 351

An “Atlas” Powder Blast under Cableway. Copyright by Charles Stadler, Chicago. Full page 353

American Portal of St. Clair Tunnel. Courtesy of Grand Trunk R. R. 358

Interior of St. Clair Tunnel. Courtesy of Grand Trunk R. R. 359

Thoroughbred. Full page 363

Watering the Cows 365

A Temperance Society. (Herring) 367

Art Critics. (Gebler) 368

French Coach-Horse “Gladiator” 369

Pacing Horse “Star Pointer.” Time 1m. 59 1-4s 371

Automobile or Horseless Carriage. Courtesy of Electric Automobile Co. 373

Commodore Stephen Decatur 376

Commodore Perry at Battle of Lake Erie 377

Schoolship Saratoga. Courtesy of Philadelphia Bourse Book 379

Robert E. Lee at Battle of Chapultepec. Full page 381

Castle William. Military Prison, New York Harbor 383

Generals Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson 385

General Ulysses S. Grant. Full page 387

Sherman’s March to the Sea. Full page 389

Lee’s Surrender at Appomattox 391

Morro Castle, Santiago Harbor 392

Admiral George Dewey. Full page 393

Main Deck of Cruiser Chicago 394

Dewey’s Guns at Manila. Full page 395

General Joseph Wheeler 397

The Truce before Santiago 398

Aguinaldo, the Tagal Leader 399

Napoleon, 1814. (Meissonier.) Full page 401

Admiral Horatio Nelson 403

Napoleon’s Retreat from Waterloo. Full page 405

Capture of the Malakoff. Full page 409

Battle of Magenta. Full page 411

Louis Adolphe Theirs 415

Cavalry Charge at Gravelotte. Full page 416

Battle of Yalu River. Full page 417

Munich Exposition, 1854 423

New Orleans Exposition, 1884. Full page 425

Eiffel Tower, Paris Exposition, 1888 427

Court of Honor, Chicago Exposition, 1893 429

Women’s Building, Chicago Exposition, 1893 431

Agricultural Building, Atlanta Exposition, 1895 433

Machinery Hall, Atlanta Exposition, 1895 434

Women’s Building, Nashville Exposition, 1897 435

Art Building, Nashville Exposition, 1897 437

Grand Court, Omaha Exposition, 1898. Photograph by H. C. Hersey 439

National Export Exposition, Philadelphia, Sept. 14 to Nov. 30, 1899. Electro supplied by Commercial Museum. Full page 441

Old United States Mint, Philadelphia 447

New United States Mint, Philadelphia. Courtesy of Philadelphia Bourse Book. Full page 451

Carpenter’s Hall, Philadelphia, First Site of First United States Bank. Full page 453

Girard Bank, Philadelphia, Second Site of First United States Bank 455

Second United States Bank, Philadelphia, now Custom House 457

Bank of England, London 463

German Bank, Bremen 464

The Bourse, Paris. Full page 464

New York Clearing House 468

Cocoanut Tree, Palm Beach, Fla. Photograph by author. Full page 473

Packing Apples for Export, St. Catherines, Ont. Full page 477

Lady de Coverly Grapes, Maryville, Cal. Photograph by author. Full page 483

Orange Orchard, Sanford, Fla. Photograph by author 487

Olive Orchard, San José, Cal. Photograph by author 488

Pineapple Field, Palm Beach, Fla. Photograph by author 489

A Clipper Ship. Permission of Whittaker & Co. 493

Robert Fulton 494

The Clermont, Fulton’s First Steamboat 495

S. Cunard, Founder of First Ocean Packet Line. Courtesy of Cunard S. S. Co. 497

The Oceanic, 1899—Largest Ship Afloat. Courtesy of White Star Line. Full page 499

Steamer Campania, of Cunard Line. Courtesy of Cunard S. S. Co. Full page 509

Cramps’ Shipyard on the Delaware. Full page 512

Pestalozzi, of Yverdun 517

Froebel, Founder of Kindergartens 519

Dr. Thomas Arnold, Rugby, England 520

An Old Log Schoolhouse 521

Schoolhouse at Sleepy Hollow 524

Interior of Sleepy Hollow Schoolhouse 525

Child’s Guide. Full page 527

Dr. Charles W. Eliot, President of Harvard University 531

William T. Harris 533

Ideal Schoolhouse and Grounds 534

Suggestions for planting a Schoolground 535

New High School, Philadelphia. Full page 537

Dr. William H. Maxwell, Superintendent “Greater New York” Schools 538

Booker T. Washington, Principal Tuskegee Institute 539

Dr. E. Benj. Andrews, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, Ill. 541

Early Hand Printing Press 543

The Columbian Press 545

Washington Hand Press 546

Old Wooden Frame Adams Press 547

Double Cylinder Press 549

First Perfecting Press 551

Four-roller Two-Revolution Press 553

Lithographic Press 555

Numbering Card Press 557

Linotype (Type-setting) Machine—Front View 559

Octuple Stereotype Perfecting Press and Folder. Full page 560

Outline of Type-setting Machine 561

Sinking, Drifting, and Stoping in Mining 573

Air Compressor 574

The “Sergeant” Rock Drill 575

Steam-Driven Air Compressor 576

Driving a Railway Tunnel. Full page 577

Straight Line Air Compressor 578

Duplex Air Compressor 579

Electric Coal-Mining Machine. Full page 581

Gold Dredging on Swan River, Colorado. Full page 583

Power Plant at Jerome Park 585

The Holy Women at the Tomb 589

Christmas Chimes. (Blashfield.) Full page 591

Whispers of Love. (Bouguereau.) Full page 592

Greek Girls playing at Ball. (Leighton) 593

Landseer and his Favorites. (By himself.) Full page 595

The Horse Fair. (Rosa Bonheur.) Full page 597

At the Shrine of Venus. (Alma Tadema) 601

Napoleon I. (Canova) 603

Statue of Benjamin Franklin. (Boyle) 605

The Washington Monument, Fairmount Park 607

Photographic View of New York City 611

Surgical Operating Room, Howard Hospital, Philadelphia 617

Clinical Amphitheatre, Pennsylvania Hospital. Full page 621

Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia. From its “History.” Full page 624

X-Ray Photograph of a Compound Fracture of Forearm 628

X-Ray Picture of a Dislocated Elbow. Full page 629

Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes 637

Dr. Nathan Smith Davis, of Chicago. Courtesy of Dr. Davis 639

Starling Medical College and St. Francis Hospital, Columbus, Ohio. Courtesy of Spahr & Glenn. Full page 640

J. Marion Sims, A. B., M. D., New York. Courtesy of Wm. Wood & Co. 641

The Old Stage Coach 644

First Train of Steam Cars 645

A Railway Train in Belgium 647

Loop in the Selkirks, showing Four Tracks. Full page 649

Entrance to St. Gothard Tunnel, Switzerland 651

Railway Signals 652

An American Express Locomotive 653

An American Freight Locomotive 655

Exterior of Latest Sleeping Car 656

Interior of Pullman Sleeping Car 657