ПЛАТОН И ДРУГИЕ СПОДВИЖНИКИ СОКРАТА.
ПЛАТОН,
и
ДРУГИЕ СПОДВИЖНИКИ СОКРАТА.
автор:
ДЖОРДЖ ГРОТ,
автор «Истории Греции».
НОВОЕ ИЗДАНИЕ.
В ЧЕТЫРЕХ ТОМАХ.
Том IV.
ЛОНДОН:
ДЖОН МЮРРЕЙ, АЛБЕМАРЛ-СТРИТ.
1888.
Право на перевод сохранено.
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ.
CHAPTER XXXV. PLATONIC REPUBLIC — ABSTRACT. Declared theme of the Republic — Expansion and multiplication of the topics connected with it1 Personages of the dialogue2 Views of Kephalus about old ageib. Definition of Justice by Simonides — It consists in rendering to every man what is owing to himib. Objections to it by Sokrates — There are cases in which it is not right to restore what is owing, or to tell the truth3 Explanation by Polemarchus — Farther interrogations by Sokrates — Justice renders what is proper and suitable: but how? in what cases, proper? Under what circumstances is Justice useful?4 The just man, being good for keeping property guarded, must also be good for stealing property — Analogies cited5 Justice consists in doing good to friends, evil to enemies — But how, if a man mistakes who his friends are, and makes friends of bad men?6 Justice consists in doing good to your friend, if really a good man: hurt to your enemy, with the like proviso. Sokrates affirms that the just man will do no hurt to any one. Definition of Simonides rejectedib. Thrasymachus takes up the dialogue — Repulsive portrait drawn of him7 Violence of Thrasymachus — Subdued manner of Sokrates — Conditions of useful colloquyib. Definition given by Thrasymachus — Justice is that which is advantageous to the more powerful. Comments by Sokrates. What if the powerful man mistakes his own advantage?8 Correction by Thrasymachus — if the Ruler mistakes, he is pro tanto no Ruler — The Ruler, quâ Ruler — quâ Craftsman — is infallible9 Reply by Sokrates — The Ruler, quâ infallible Craftsman, studies the interest of those whom he governs, and not his own interestib. Thrasymachus denies this — Justice is the good of another. The just many are worse off than the unjust One, and are forced to submit to his superior strength10 Position laid for the subsequent debate and exposition11 Arguments of Sokrates — Injustice is a source of weakness — Every multitude must observe justice among themselves, in order to avoid perpetual quarrels. The same about any single individual: if he is unjust, he will be at war with himself, and perpetually weakib. Farther argument of Sokrates — The just man is happy, the unjust man miserable — Thrasymachus is confuted and silenced. Sokrates complains that he does not yet know what Justice isib. Glaukon intimates that he is not satisfied with the proof, though he agrees in the opinion expressed by Sokrates. Tripartite distribution of Good — To which of the three heads does Justice belong?12 Glaukon undertakes to set forth the case against Sokrates, though professing not to agree with itib. Pleading of Glaukon. Justice is in the nature of a compromise for all — a medium between what is best and what is worst13 Comparison of the happiness of the just man derived from his justice alone, when others are unjust to him with that of the unjust man under parallel circumstances14 Pleading of Adeimantus on the same side. He cites advice given by fathers to their sons, recommending just behaviour by reason of its consequences15 Nobody recommends Justice per se, but only by reason of its consequences16 Adeimantus calls upon Sokrates to recommend and enforce Justice on its own grounds, and to explain how Justice in itself benefits the mind of the just man17 Relation of Glaukon and Adeimantus to Thrasymachus18 Statement of the question as it stands after the speeches of Glaukon and Adeimantus. What Sokrates undertakes to proveib. Position to be proved by Sokrates — Justice makes the just man happy per se, whatever be its results20 Argument of Sokrates to show what Justice is — Assumed analogy between the city and the individualib. Fundamental principle, to which communities of mankind owe their origin — Reciprocity of want and service between individuals — No individual can suffice to himselfib. Moderate equipment of a sound and healthy city — Few wants22 Enlargement of the city — Multiplied wants and services. First origin of war and strife with neighbours — It arises out of these multiplied wantsib. Separate class of soldiers or Guardians. One man cannot do well more than one business. Character required in the Guardians — Mildness at home with pugnacity against enemies23 Peculiar education necessary, musical as well as gymnastical23 Musical education, by fictions as well as by truth. Fictions addressed to the young: the religious legends now circulating are often pernicious: censorship necessary24 Orthodox type to be laid down: all poets are required to conform their legends to it. The Gods are causes of nothing but good: therefore they are causes of few things. Great preponderance of actual evilib. The Guardians must not fear death. No terrible descriptions of Hades must be presented to them: no intense sorrow, nor violent nor sensual passion, must be re counted either of Gods or Heroes25 Type for all narratives respecting men26 Style of narratives. The poet must not practise variety of imitation: he must not speak in the name of bad charactersib. Rhythm and Melody regulated. None but simple and grave music allowed: only the Dorian and Phrygian moods, with the lyre and harpib. Effect of musical training of the mind — makes youth love the Beautiful and hate the Ugly27 Training of the body — simple and sober. No refined medical art allowed. Wounds or temporary ailments treated; but sickly frames cannot be kept alive28 Value of Gymnastic in imparting courage to the mind — Gymnastic and Music necessary to correct each other29 Out of the Guardians a few of the very best must be chosen as Elders or Rulers — highly educated and severely testedib. Fundamental creed required to be planted in the minds of all the citizens respecting their breed and relationship30 How is such a fiction to be accredited in the first instance? Difficulty extreme, of first beginning; but if once accredited, it will easily transmit itself by tradition31 Guardians to reside in barracks and mess together; to have no private property or home; to be maintained by contribution from the people32 If the Guardians fail in these precautions, and acquire private interests, the city will be ruined32 Complete unity of the city, every man performing his own special function33 The maintenance of the city depends upon that of the habits, character, and education of the Guardians34 Religious legislation — Consult the Delphian Apolloib. The city is now constituted as a good city — that is, wise, courageous, temperate, just. Where is its Justice?ib. First, where is the wisdom of the city? It resides in the few elder Rulersib. Where is the Courage? In the body of Guardians or Soldiers35 Where is the Temperance? It resides in all and each, Rulers, Guardians, and People. Superiors rule and Inferiors obeyib. Where is the Justice? In all and each of them also. It consists in each performing his own special function, and not meddling with the function of the others36 Injustice arises when any one part of the city interferes with the functions of the other part, or undertakes double functions37 Analogy of the city to the individual — Each man is tripartite, having in his mind Reason, Energy, Appetite. These three elements are distinct, and often conflictingib. Reason, Energy, Appetite, in the individual — analogous to Rulers, Guardians, Craftsmen in the city. Reason is to rule Appetite. Energy assists Reason in ruling it39 A man is just when these different parts of his mind exercise their appropriate functions without hindranceib. Justice and Injustice in the mind — what health and disease are in the body40 Original question now resumed — Does Justice make a man happy, and Injustice make him miserable, apart from all consequences? Answer — Yesib. Glaukon requires farther explanation about the condition of the Guardians, in regard to sexual and family ties41 Men and women will live together and perform the duties of Guardians alike — They will receive the same gymnastic and musical training41 Nature does not prescribe any distribution of functions between men and women. Women are inferior to men in every thing. The best women are equal to second-best men 42 Community of life and relations between the male and female Guardians. Temporary marriages arranged by contrivance of the Elders. No separate familiesib. Regulations about age, for procreation — Children brought up under public authority44 Perfect communion of sentiment and interest among the Guardians — Causes of pleasure and pain the same to all, like parts of the same organismib. Harmony — absence of conflicting interest — assured scale of equal comfort — consequent happiness — among the Guardians45 In case of war both sexes will go together to battle — Rewards to distinguished warriors46 War against Hellenic enemies to be carried on mildly — Hellens are all by nature kinsmen47 Question — How is the scheme practicable? It is difficult, yet practicable on one condition — That philosophy and political power should come into the same handsib. Characteristic marks of the philosopher — He contemplates and knows Entia or unchangeable Forms, as distinguished from fluctuating particulars or Fientia48 Ens alone can be known — Non-Ens is unknowable. That which is midway between Ens and Non-Ens (particulars) is matter only of opinion. Ordinary men attain nothing beyond opinion49 Particulars fluctuate: they are sometimes just or beautiful, sometimes unjust or ugly. Forms or Entia alone remain constant50 The many cannot discern or admit the reality of Forms — Their minds are always fluctuating among particulars51 The philosopher will be ardent for all varieties of knowledge — His excellent moral attributes — He will be trained to capacity for active lifeib. Adeimantus does not dispute the conclusion, but remarks that it is at variance with actual facts — Existing philosophers are either worthless pretenders, or when they are good, useless52 Sokrates admits the fact to be so — His simile of the able steersman on shipboard, among a disobedient crew53 The uselessness of the true philosopher is the fault of the citizen, who will not invoke his guidance54 The great qualities required to form a philosopher, become sources of perversion, under a misguiding public opinionib. Mistake of supposing that such perversion arises from the Sophists. Irresistible effect of the public opinion generally, in tempting or forcing a dissenter into orthodoxy55 The Sophists and other private teachers accept the prevalent orthodoxy, and conform their teaching to it56 The people generally hate philosophy — A youth who aspires to it will be hated by the people, and persecuted even by his own relatives57 The really great minds are thus driven away from the path of philosophy — which is left to empty pretenders58 Rare cases in which a highly qualified philosopher remains — Being at variance with public opinion, he can achieve nothing, and is lucky if he can obtain safety by silenceib. The philosopher must have a community suitable to him, and worthy of him59 It must be such a community as Sokrates has been describing — But means must be taken to keep up a perpetual succession of philosophers as Rulers60 Proper manner of teaching philosophy — Not to begin at a very early ageib. If the multitude could once see a real, perfect, philosopher, they could not fail to love him: but this never happens61 Course of training in the Platonic city, for imparting philosophy to the Rulers. They must be taught to ascend to the Idea of Good. But what is Good?ib. Ancient disputes upon this point, though every one yearns after Good. Some say Intelligence; some say Pleasure. Neither is satisfactory62 Adeimantus asks what Sokrates says. Sokrates says that he can not answer: but he compares it by a metaphor to the Sun63 The Idea of Good rules the ideal or intelligible world, as the Sun rules the sensible or visible world64 To the intelligible world there are applicable two distinct modes of procedure — the Geometrical — the Dialectic. Geometrical procedure assumes diagrams65 Dialectic procedure assumes nothing. It departs from the highest Form, and steps gradually down to the lowest, without meddling with any thing except Forms66 Two distinct grades of Cognition — Direct or Superior — Nous — Indirect or Inferior — Dianoiaib. Two distinct grades of Opinion also in the Sensible World — Faith or Belief — Conjecture67 Distinction between the philosopher and the unphilosophical public, illustrated by the simile of the Cave, and the captives imprisoned thereinib. Daylight of philosophy contrasted with the firelight and shadows of the Cave69 Purpose of a philosophical training, to turn a man round from facing the bad light of the Cave to face the daylight of philosophy, and to see the eternal Formsib. Those who have emerged from the Cave into full daylight amidst eternal Forms, must be forced to come down again and undertake active duties — Their reluctance to do this70 Studies serving as introduction to philosophy — Arithmetic, its awakening power — shock to the mind by felt contradictionib. Perplexity arising from the One and Many, stimulates the mind to an intellectual effort for clearing it up72 Geometry conducts the mind to wards Universal Ensib. Astronomy — how useful — not useful as now taught — must be studied by ideal figures, not by observation73 Acoustics, in like manner — The student will be thus conducted to the highest of all studies — Dialectic: and to the region of pure intelligible Forms74 Question by Glaukon — What is the Dialectic Power? Sokrates declares that he cannot answer with certainty, and that Glaukon could not follow him if he did75 He answers partially — It is the consummation of all the sciences, raising the student to the contemplation of pure Forms, and especially to that of the highest Form — Goodib. The Synoptic view peculiar to the Dialectician76 Scale and duration of various studies for the Guardians, from youth upwardsib. All these studies, and this education, are common to females as well as males77 First formation of the Platonic city — how brought about: difficult, but not impossible78 The city thus formed will last long, but not for ever. After a certain time, it will begin to degenerate. Stages of its degeneracyib. 1. Timocracy and the timocratical individual. 2 Oligarchy, and the oligarchical individual79 3. Democracy, and the democratical individual80 4. Passage from democracy to despotism. Character of the despotic city 81 Despotic individual corresponding to that city82 The city has thus passed by four stages, from best to worse. Question — How are Happiness and Misery apportioned among them?ib. Misery of the despotised city83 Supreme Misery of the despotising individualib. Conclusion — The Model city and the individual corresponding to it, are the happiest of all — That which is farthest removed from it, is the most miserable of all84 The Just Man is happy in and through his Justice, however he may be treated by others. The Unjust Man, miserable84 Other arguments proving the same conclusion — Pleasures of Intelligence are the best of all pleasuresib. They are the only pleasures completely true and pure. Comparison of pleasure and pain with neutrality. Prevalent illusions86 Most men know nothing of true and pure pleasure. Simile of the Kosmos — Absolute height and depth87 Nourishment of the mind partakes more of real essence than nourishment of the body — Replenishment of the mind imparts fuller pleasure than replenishment of the body88 Comparative worthlessness of the pleasures of Appetite and Ambition, when measured against those of Intelligence89 The Just Man will be happy from his justice — He will look only to the good order of his own mind — He will stand aloof from public affairs, in cities as now constituted90 Tenth Book — Censure of the poets is renewed — Mischiefs of imitation generally, as deceptive — Imitation from imitation91 Censure of Homer — He is falsely extolled as educator of the Hellenic world. He and other poets only deceive their hearers92 The poet chiefly appeals to emotions — Mischiefs of such eloquent appeals, as disturbing the rational government of the mindib. Ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry — Plato fights for philosophy, though his feelings are strongly enlisted for poetry93 Immortality of the soul affirmed and sustained by argument — Total number of souls always the sameib. Recapitulation — The Just Man will be happy, both from his justice and from its consequences, both here and hereafter94
CHAPTER XXXVI.
REPUBLIC — REMARKS ON ITS MAIN THESIS.
Summary of the preceding chapter95 Title of the Republic, of ancient date, but only a partial indication of its contents96 Parallelism between the Commonwealth and the Individual96 Each of them a whole, composed of parts distinct in function and unequal in merit97 End proposed by Plato. Happiness of the Commonwealth. Happiness of the individual. Conditions of happiness98 Peculiar view of Justice taken by Plato99 Pleadings of Glaukon and Adeimantus ib. The arguments which they enforce were not invented by the Sophists, but were the received views anterior to Plato100 Argument of Sokrates to refute them. Sentiments in which it originates. Panegyric on Justice101 Different senses of justice — wider and narrower sense102 Plato’s sense of the word Justice or Virtue — self-regarding104 He represents the motives to it, as arising from the internal happiness of the just agents105 His theory departs more widely from the truth than that which he opposes. Argument of Adeimantus discussed106 A Reciprocity of rights and duties between men in social life — different feelings towards one and towards the other109 Plato’s own theory, respecting the genesis of society, is based on reciprocity111 Antithesis and correlation of obligation and right. Necessity of keeping the two ideas together, as the basis of any theory respecting society112 Characteristic feature of the Platonic Commonwealth — specialization of services to that function for which each man is fit — will not apply to one individual separately114 Plato has not made good his refutation — the thesis which he impugns is true116 Statement of the real issue between him and his opponents117 He himself misrepresents this issue — he describes his opponents as enemies of justiceib. Farther arguments of Plato in support of his thesis. Comparison of three different characters of men118 His arguments do not go to the point which he professes to aim at120 Exaggerated parallelism between the Commonwealth and the individual man121 Second Argument of Plato to prove the happiness of the just man — He now recalls his previous concession, and assumes that the just man will receive just treatment and esteem from othersib. Dependence of the happiness of the individual on the society in which he is placed123 Inconsistency of affirming general positions respecting the happiness of the just man, in all societies without distinction124 Qualified sense in which only this can be done125 Question — Whether the just man is orthodox or dissenter in his society? — important in discussing whether he is happy126 Comparison of the position of Sokrates at Athens, with that of his accusersib. Imperfect ethical basis on which Plato has conducted the discussion in the Republic127 Plato in Republic is preacher, inculcating useful beliefs — not philosopher, establishing scientific theory. State of Just and Unjust Man in the Platonic Commonwealth129 Comparative happiness of the two in actual communities. Plato is dissatisfied with it — This is his motive for recasting society on his own principles130 Confusion between the preacher and the philosopher in the Platonic Republic131 Remarks on the contrast between ethical theory and ethical preceptsib.