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Книга имеет несколько сложную структуру, состоящую из семи «книг», охватывающих различные аспекты науки, за которыми следуют обширные пояснительные примечания и подробный указатель. Цифры на левом поле обозначают строки текста, на которые даются ссылки в примечаниях (например, стр. 187, строка 27) или в указателе. Последние заключены в скобки, чтобы отличить их от ссылок на страницы, например: Помпей, 166 (3).
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE IN THE
TIME OF NERO
MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited ЛОНДОН · БОМБЕЙ · КАЛЬКУТТА МЕЛЬБУРН
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY НЬЮ-ЙОРК · БОСТОН · ЧИКАГО АТЛАНТА · САН-ФРАНЦИСКО
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. ТОРОНТО
ЕСТЕСТВЕННОНАУЧНЫЕ ВОПРОСЫ В ЭПОХУ НЕРОНА
BEING A TRANSLATION OF THE
QUAESTIONES NATURALES OF SENECA
BY
JOHN CLARKE, M.A.
LECTURER ON EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN
WITH NOTES ON THE TREATISE BY
Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE
K.C.B., D.C.L., Sc.D., LL.D.
PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY
MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON
1910
Plurimum ad inveniendum contulit qui speravit posse reperiri. Сенека, Естественнонаучные вопросы, VI. V. 2.
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Эта книга предназначена прежде всего для английских читателей, для большинства из которых она, вероятно, будет по крайней мере в новинку. Томас Лодж, известный драматург, опубликовал в 1614 году перевод всех прозаических произведений Сенеки (за исключением «Апоколокинтоза»), но, по-видимому, ни один английский редактор или комментатор не обращал своего внимания на «Естественнонаучные вопросы» ни до, ни после этого. Перевод Лоджа, том в формате фолио объемом почти в тысячу страниц, вероятно, был очень хорош для своего времени, но сейчас он устарел.
Введение призвано создать контекст для перевода и ответить на некоторые вопросы, которые естественным образом возникли бы у разумного читателя, не являющегося специалистом по классической филологии. В указатель также включены некоторые детали, которые могут быть полезны тем, у кого нет ни времени, ни возможности искать исторические и другие аллюзии в справочных изданиях. Цель состояла в том, чтобы сделать том самодостаточным, хотя, возможно, курс между «слишком мало» и «слишком много» не всегда был выдержан разумно.
«Естественнонаучные вопросы» следует рассматривать как произведение, занимающее важное историческое положение. Это был последний вклад античного мира в область физических умозрений. Их хождение в Средние века сделало их на многие столетия главным научным авторитетом в Западной Европе. Их космология представляла не только популярное, но и образованное мнение и стала источником многих принятых представлений о Вселенной, которые перешли в раннюю современную литературу нашей и других стран.
Признательность редакторам Сенеки и другим лицам, которая была весьма велика, выражена настолько полно, насколько это возможно, во введении и в других местах, где была использована помощь. Интерес, проявленный к книге различными друзьями, также с благодарностью признается. Профессор сэр Джозеф Лармор и профессор Дж. Артур Томсон внесли несколько полезных предложений. Профессор Герберт Дж. К. Грирсон любезно прочитал корректурные оттиски и оказал ценную помощь в других отношениях. Но моя главная благодарность принадлежит сэру Арчибальду Гейки. Именно ему перевод обязан своим началом: его постоянная помощь и поддержка позволили мне завершить задачу, от которой я, вероятно, в противном случае уклонился бы. Я также обязан ему комментарием, приложенным к переводу, в котором вопросы, рассматриваемые Сенекой, анализируются с точки зрения современной науки. Это был для него труд любви: пусть наши читатели получат такое же удовлетворение!
Дж. К.
Old Aberdeen,
September 27, 1909.
CONTENTS
Preface v
Introduction xxi
BOOK I
[METEORS, HALO, RAINBOW, MOCK SUN, ETC.]
PREFACE
PAGE
Contrast between human (moral) philosophy and divine (natural, physical). The sublime character of the latter which lifts us above the contemplation of the littlenesses of the earth and earthly life to the knowledge of God and His nature. Compared with astronomical conceptions and dimensions the world of man is but as a threshing-floor, the haunt of ants. The mind of man attains its true height in contemplation and investigation of these sublime facts. Some of the problems thus raised 3
CHAP.
I. Meteoric fires—she-goat, kid, etc. Occasions of their appearance; connection of portent with event. Explanation of the phenomena. They may be due to pressure of the atmosphere. Aristotle attributes them to the effect of terrestrial evaporation: difference of density causes various outbursts of this kind. They are analogous to lightning, but less violent
8
II. Halos. Produced by the light of a heavenly body striking the surrounding air and forming a circle as a stone does when thrown into a pond. Formed far away from the heavenly body and comparatively near the earth in the region of the wind. Require a particular state of the atmosphere neither too dense nor too thin. More frequent at night than day for this reason: by day the sun rarefies the air too much by its heat. Method of dissipation gives indication of wind or rain. Calmness a condition of formation, as in the analogous case of water 12
III. Rainbows. Generally by day, produced by inequalities of surface and density in clouds. Another species seen in a burst pipe or a fuller at work. Various explanations. Light and shade will not explain the varied colours. Some explain the rainbow as a confused reflection of the sun from individual drops of rain: every bounded surface, large or small, thus reflects—fish-pond and dew-drop equally. Aristotle attributes the confusion of colours to weakness of human sight; parallels may be found in persons whose sight is abnormally weak. As the innumerable drops, apparently without intervals, fall, human vision fails to distinguish severally the reflections of the sun, which thus become blended and confused. Vision is similarly deceived in the case of an oar in water, apples in a glass globe, etc., even in the size and movements of the sun himself. At any rate the rainbow requires both sun and cloud, and these opposite to each other. These two in operation produce the varieties of colour 16
IV. That the rainbow is an image is shown by the relation of sun to cloud in position, by the rapidity of formation and dispersion. Artemidorus’ explanation of the shape of the cloud (concave), and the consequent position of the red in the rainbow 22
V. Arguments to show that the cloud is coloured by the sun, like a dove’s neck or a peacock’s tail, and that the rainbow is not a reflection of the sun. The position (opposite) would be equally necessary in this case. Answer to this contention by Posidonius. The colour effects. Author agrees with Posidonius’ position but not his arguments. The only proof is the geometrical one 23
VI. Arguments from the size—never more than a semicircle—and shape of the bow. As the colour, whether real or reflected, is derived from the sun, so must also the shape be. The size is accounted for by the magnifying power of water, glass, etc. The sun as he appears in the rainbow is seen through moisture 28
VII. The arguments from the dispersion of the sun’s rays through glass (prism). Contention that they confirm author’s view 30
VIII. The form once more; why it is never larger than a semicircle. A wrong explanation refuted. Explanation of Aristotle’s remark as to the seasons of rainbows, in summer only in the morning or evening, in autumn at any time 31
IX. Streaks or weather-galls. Merely abortive or imperfect rainbows 33
X. Relations and differences of halos, bows, and weather-galls 34
XI. Mock suns. Their appearance and position in relation to the sun. They are a reflection of the sun in a suitable medium 34
XII. The formation of a mock sun may be compared to the image of the sun in eclipse as seen reflected in a dish of oil or pitch: the medium must be adapted to give the impression. The mock sun requires a certain consistency of cloud, failing which, a different effect is produced—obscuration, dissipation, etc. 35
XIII. There may be two mock suns simultaneously. Some think the one is a reflection of the other, the clouds acting as mirrors set opposite to one another. Mock suns, especially in the South, are a sign of rain 36
XIV. Other celestial fires. “Cave meteors,” “Barrel meteors,” “Chasms,” with a brief description of each. The rapidity of their flight, just as of lightning, deceives the sight. Their origin and cause. They indicate wind 37
XV. Gleams (flashes, σέλα). Their production and motions, varieties of them. Some do damage. Some are analogous to comets. “Bearded,” “torches,” “cypress” are different kinds. “Beams” and “barrels” may be of the same class. A curious case where such an appearance raised an alarm of fire. They are real fires. On the contrary, rainbows and halos are mere reflections. Mirrors have this wonderful power of false presentation 39
XVI. The “mirrored den” of Hostius Quadra 41
XVII. The philosophy of the looking-glass. The evolution of mirrors. Mirrors of full length are now used. They cost a fortune greater than the Senate gave Scipio’s daughters. A harmless necessary device has become an instrument of luxury, the adornment of women, the burden of men, nay, part of the kit of the soldier 44
BOOK II
[THE NATURE OF AIR. THUNDER AND LIGHTNING]
[I.-XI. Prefatory to treatment of thunder and lightning, descriptive of the nature of the air, in which these phenomena occur.]
I. Divisions of physical science—astronomy, meteorology, geography. Cross divisions, e.g. earthquakes, belong to meteorology, being produced by air; so the earth, as a planet, belongs to Astronomy but its properties belong to Geography 51
II. Unity and composition in bodies. The analogy of the seen applies to the unseen. The atmosphere is possessed of unity (unitas) 52
III. Parts and material of bodies distinguished. In the human body blood is both 54
IV. The atmosphere is an integral part of the universe: has unity 54
V. The earth is both part and material of the universe. From it nourishment is supplied to the latter 55
VI. The atmosphere has unity—is not compact of atoms, otherwise it could not exert tension, which is one of its main features, with endless manifestations 55
VII. There is no vacuum in the air, as the analogy of water shows 57
VIII. The exertion of tension presupposes tensibility, just as motion does mobility. Its existence in air proved by the effects of air, which tosses about mountains, houses, walls, etc. The propagation of sight and sound proves the same 58
IX. Its tension is seen in raising water, as in the jet in the amphitheatre. Proofs from a ship upborne of water, a quoit flung from a height, sound heard through a wall 59
X. Varieties of density and temperature in the atmosphere: the central layer is coldest 60
XI. The lower parts are most subject to change. The cause of this is in part the earth, in part the sun, moon, and other stars. So much by way of preface to explain the nature of that atmosphere in which thunder and lightning occur 61
XII. Lightning, thunder-bolt, thunder. All agree that they occur in the clouds, but different explanations are given of their cause and relations. Anaxagoras connects them with the ether; Aristotle says they are due to exhalations of various kinds, from the earth, coming in contact with the clouds 62
XIII. The fire cannot be inherent in the clouds and fall from them. When it so comes it is forced 64
XIV. There is nothing inconsistent with this in the explanation given (I. xv.) of meteors. There may be an analogy with what is observed in cases of fire when isolated groups of houses take fire through gradual accumulation of heat 65
XV. Some (Stoics) think that spontaneous combustion takes place in the air 66
XVI. Difference between a flash of lightning and a bolt 66
XVII. Some explain the noise of thunder as due to hot meeting cold, as in the case of hot iron plunged into water 67
XVIII. Anaximander attributes the effects to air and explains all the phenomena by reference to it 67
XIX. Anaxagoras says it is the ether that acts on the lower atmosphere to produce them: it sends out fire 68
XX. Diogenes of Apollonia thinks that fire and air interact, producing one another, as may be observed in the various phenomena 68
XXI. Authorities discarded: independent explanation. A flash and a bolt are fire in some form: they differ only in degree 69
XXII. Analogy of fire on earth: it must apply above. Lightning due either to impact or friction. Hurricanes are a sufficient cause of the former 70
XXIII. Clouds and air may through friction also be a cause. The fires so produced are insubstantial and evanescent 71
XXIV. Fire by reason of its lightness levitates, just as water gravitates. But in the case of a bolt it is forced down, contrary to its nature, like a “weeping” tree 71
XXV. But it is said that wet clouds produce fire. How? 72
XXVI. There is no inconsistency in the combination in the same cloud of potential fire and water. A log burns at one end, exudes moisture at the other. An island on each of two occasions was thrown up by fire in the Aegean Sea, fire overcoming water. And clouds are, as a matter of fact, required for lightning: exceptions to this are only apparent 72
XXVII. Different kinds of thunder. The growling and the crashing, with their causes 75
XXVIII. In order to the sound of thunder, clouds of a particular shape must meet in a particular way. A bladder does not burst with a report if cut. A broad simultaneous blow over the whole cloud is necessary to an explosion 76
XXIX. The proper shape and the rupture of the cloud are necessary. Compare drums, etc. 77
XXX. According to some, clouds are not necessary to thunder: witness eruptions of Etna and the overthrow of Cambyses’ army, where particles of sand were the medium of the thunder and lightning. But in this case, too, a cloud was formed, it may be, a denser, and more solid than one composed of mere air, before the sound was emitted 77
XXXI. Strange effects of lightning 78
XXXII. Portents and events, their undoubted and widespread connection 79
XXXIII. Thunderbolts. Threefold division of the art of dealing with them 81
XXXIV. Mistaken views as to the relation of lightning to other presages. The former are of equal, not superior, value 82
XXXV. Fate cannot be changed by expiation and entreaty 83
XXXVI. “God is not a man” that he should change fate. What is the use, then, of rites? 84
XXXVII. Answer—Fate fixes some things only conditionally: the alternative issues are determined by the conduct, active or passive, of the worshipper 84
XXXVIII. This action of his is likewise a part of fate. The soothsayer, like the physician, is the minister of fate. Discussion of free will deferred 85
XXXIX. Three classes or kinds of thunderbolts, as judged by their indications, according to Caecina 86
XL. These are kinds of prognostications rather than of bolts. The different species of the latter are distinguished by their effects—boring, splitting, burning. Fine distinctions of Latin terms 87
XLI. A kind that stains or discolours. The Etruscan view of the three kinds of bolt according to their division 88
XLII. The Etruscans knew what they were about in attributing certain motives and actions to Jupiter. Their theory was for the benefit of the ignorant mass of humanity 89
XLIII. “Which things are an allegory.” An example is set to earthly rulers to be merciful and consider well their judgments 90
XLIV. Jove does not change his missiles; but there are gradations in the offence to be punished. That is the lesson 91
XLV. By Jove the Etruscans meant, as we do, all that is greatest and best—Fate, Providence, Nature, the Universe 91
XLVI. He is the source of the thunder’s power, though he does not superintend each stroke. Why he spares the guilty is another affair, which will be discussed in another place 92
XLVII. An erroneous classification of thunderbolts according to time 92
XLVIII. It must be wrong, because the time is always limited. A better basis of treatment is that of Attalus. Place, time, person, etc., must all be looked into 93
XLIX. Caecina’s division, his names and their meanings 94
L. That of Attalus is much better, being based on the true signification 95
LI. The signification of some does not affect, of some does not reach, us 95
LII. The force of lightning as seen in different materials, and at different times in the same material (cf. xxxi.) 96
LIII. Poisonous effects: may be followed up afterwards. Panegyric on philosophy 97
LIV. Returns to Posidonius’ (Aristotle’s) opinion as to the cause of thunder, an explosion of air 98
LV. The collision of clouds may produce it. Air is the cause in this instance also. Shooting stars are associated with thunder, but this is the exception, not the rule 98
LVI. Heraclitus and Caecina think sheet lightning an intermittent incipient fire. Change in the pronunciation of the Latin word 100
LVII. Lightning is probably due to the air turning into fire through rarefaction of the clouds. It is naturally most frequent in summer. Sheet and forked lightning differ in degree, not in kind 100
LVIII. Reasons for rapidity of lightning and its obliquity 101
LIX. Every story should have a moral. Death cannot be prevented; why fear it? It is cowardly and silly. Death by lightning is rather an honour than otherwise. Besides, fear is futile 102
BOOK III
ON FORMS OF WATER
PREFACE
Having begun a mighty task in my old age I must make up for lost time by hurrying on. The magnitude of it is actually an incentive to effort. Such studies are far superior to the historian’s task of recording the deeds of the robbers and butchers of mankind. The former raise us above the vicissitudes of fortune. “The principal thing” is to have a pure heart and clean hands, to escape slavery to self. The study of the universe exalts us to this 109