ИСТОРИЯ НАУЧНЫХ ИДЕЙ.
ТОМ I.
Кембридж: ОТПЕЧАТАНО К. Дж. КЛЕЕМ, МАГИСТРОМ ИСКУССТВ, В УНИВЕРСИТЕТСКОЙ ТИПОГРАФИИ.
ИСТОРИЯ НАУЧНЫХ ИДЕЙ.
УИЛЬЯМА УЭВЕЛЛА, ДОКТОРА БОГОСЛОВИЯ,
ГЛАВЫ ТРИНИТИ-КОЛЛЕДЖА В КЕМБРИДЖЕ И ЧЛЕНА-КОРРЕСПОНДЕНТА ИНСТИТУТА ФРАНЦИИ.
ЯВЛЯЮЩАЯСЯ ПЕРВОЙ ЧАСТЬЮ ФИЛОСОФИИ ИНДУКТИВНЫХ НАУК.
ТРЕТЬЕ ИЗДАНИЕ. В ДВУХ ТОМАХ.
ΛΑΜΠΑΔIΑ ΕΧΟΝΤΕΣ ΔIΑΔΩΣΟΥΣIΝ ΑΛΛΗΛΟIΣ
ТОМ I. ЛОНДОН: ДЖОН У. ПАРКЕР И СЫН, УЭСТ-СТРЭНД. 1858.
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ К НАСТОЯЩЕМУ ИЗДАНИЮ.
Главы, предлагаемые ныне вниманию читателя, ранее были опубликованы как часть «Философии индуктивных наук, основанной на их истории»; однако природа и предмет этих глав точнее описываются настоящим заглавием — «История научных идей». Ибо эта часть работы носит преимущественно исторический характер и, по сути, была собрана из корпуса научной литературы в то же самое время, когда собиралась «История индуктивных наук». Настоящая работа содержит историю науки в той мере, в какой она зависит от Идей; прежняя работа содержит ту же историю в той мере, в какой она выводится из Наблюдения. Ведущими чертами той работы были теории, выведенные из фактов; ведущими чертами этой работы являются дискуссии о теориях, направленные на приведение их в соответствие с условиями человеческого мышления.
Идеи, история которых здесь излагается, — это главным образом следующие: Пространство, Время, Число, Движение, Причина, Сила, Материя, Среда, Интенсивность, Шкала, Полярность, Элемент, Сродство, Субстанция, Атом, Симметрия, Сходство, Естественные классы, Вид, Жизнь, Функция, Жизненные силы, Конечные причины, Историческая причинность, Катастрофа и Единообразие, Первопричина.
Споры, поводом для которых послужила точная фиксация этих Идей и их свойств, составляют значительную и существенную часть истории науки; но они также составляют важную часть философии науки, ибо никакая философия науки не может быть полной, если она не разрешает трудности, антитезы и парадоксы, на которых строились такие споры. Я представил обзор подобных споров, в целом прослеженных от их самых ранних истоков до их последнего состояния, и изложил то, что представляется мне наилучшим решением каждой проблемы. Это неизбежно вовлекло меня в область весьма тернистой метафизики; но такая метафизика является необходимой частью прогресса науки. Человеческий разум, черпающий свое знание Истины из наблюдения природы, не может уклониться от задачи определения на каждом шагу того, как Истина согласуется сама с собой. Это и есть метафизика прогрессивного знания, и это есть предмет настоящей Истории.
Что касается оставшейся части того, что ранее было опубликовано как «Философия индуктивных наук», то дополнительная часть, описанная во Введении к настоящей работе, будет вскоре опубликована.
Тринити-Лодж,
24 мая 1858 г.
Опечатка, стр. 157, строка 11 сверху: вместо «sciences» читать «science».
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ПЕРВОГО ТОМА.
PAGE Prefacev PART I. OF IDEAS. Introduction3 BOOK I. OF IDEAS IN GENERAL. Chap. I. Of the Fundamental Antithesis of Philosophy23 Sect. 1. Thoughts and Things— 2. Necessary and Experiential Truths25 3. Deduction and Induction27 4. Theories and Facts29 5. Ideas and Sensations30 6. Reflexion and Sensation33 7. Subjective and Objective35 8. Matter and Form38 9. Man the Interpreter of Nature41 10. The Fundamental Antithesis is inseparable43 11. Successive Generalization49 viii Chap. II. Of Technical Terms54 Art. 1. Examples. 2. Use of Terms. Chap. III. Of Necessary Truths57 Art. 1. The two Elements of Knowledge, 2. Shown by necessary Truths. 3. Examples of necessary Truths in numbers. 4. The opposite cannot be distinctly conceived. 5. Other Examples. 6. Universal Truths. Chap. IV. Of Experience65 Art. 1.Experience cannot prove necessary Truths, 2. Except when aided by Ideas. Chap. V. Of the Grounds of Necessary Truths 69 Art. 1.These Grounds are Fundamental Ideas. 2. These are to be reviewed. 3. Definitions and Axioms. 4. Syllogism, 5. Produces no new Truths. 6. Axioms needed. 7. Axioms depend on Ideas: 8. So do Definitions. 9. Idea not completely expressed. Chap. VI. The Fundamental Ideas are not derived from Experience 76 Art. 1. No connexion observed. 2. Faculties implied in observation. 3. We are to examine our Faculties. Chap. VII. Of the Philosophy of the Sciences81 Sciences arranged according to Ideas. ix BOOK II. THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE PURE SCIENCES. Chap. I. Of the Pure Sciences 88 Art. 1. Geometry, Arithmetic, Algebra, 2. Are not Inductive Sciences: 3. Are Mathematical Sciences. 4. Mixed Mathematics. 5. Space, Time, Number. Chap. II. Of the Idea of Space91 Art. 1. Space is an Idea, 2. Not derived from Experience, 3. As Geometrical Truth shows. 4. Space is a Form of Experience. 5. The phrase not essential. Chap. III. Of some Peculiarities of the Idea of Space 95 Art. 1. Space is not an Abstract Notion. 2. Space is infinite. 3. Space is real. 4. Space is a Form of Intuition. 5. Figure. 6. Three Dimensions. Chap. IV. Of the Definitions and Axioms which relate to Space 98 Art. 1. Geometry. 2. Definitions. 3. Axioms. 4. Not Hypotheses. 5. Axioms necessary. 6. Straight Lines. 7. Planes. 8. Elementary Geometry. Chap. V. Of some Objections which have been made to the Doctrines stated in the previous Chapter107 Art. 1. How is Geometry hypothetical? 2. What was Stewart's view? x 3. 'Legitimate filiations' of Definitions. 4. Is a Definition a complete explanation? 5. Are some Axioms Definitions? 6. Axiom concerning Circles. 7. Can Axioms become truisms? 8. Use of such. Chap. VI. Of the Perception of Space 117 Art. 1. Which Senses apprehend Space? 2. Perception of solid figure. 3. Is an interpretation. 4. May be analysed. 5. Outline. 6. Reversed convexity. 7. Do we perceive Space by Touch? 8. Brown’s Opinion. 9. The Muscular Sense. 10. Bell’s Opinion. 11. Perception includes Activity. 12. Perception of the Skyey Dome. 13. Reid’s Idomenians. 14. Motion of the Eye. 15. Searching Motion. 16. Sensible Spot. 17. Expressions implying Motion. Chap. VII. Of the Idea of Time 131 Art. 1. Time an Idea not derived from Experience. 2. Time is a Form of Experience. 3. Number. 4. Is Time derived from Motion? Chap. VIII. Of some Peculiarities in the Idea of Time134 Art. 1. Time is not an Abstract Notion. 2. Time is infinite. 3. Time is a Form of Intuition. 4. Time is of one Dimension, 5. And no more. 6. Rhythm. 7. Alternation. 8. Arithmetic. xi Chap. IX. Of the Axioms which relate to Number 138 Art. 1. Grounds of Arithmetic. 2. Intuition. 3. Arithmetical Axioms, 4. Are Conditions of Numerical Reasoning 5. In all Arithmetical Operations. 6. Higher Numbers. Chap. X. Of the Perception of Time and Number141 Art. 1. Memory. 2. Sense of Successiveness 3. Implies Activity. 4. Number also does so. 5. And apprehension of Rhythm. Note to Chapter X.145 Chap. XI. Of Mathematical Reasoning 147 Art. 1. Discursive Reasoning. 2. Technical Terms of Reasoning. 3. Geometrical Analysis and Synthesis. Chap. XII. Of the Foundations of the Higher Mathematics151 Art. 1. The Idea of a Limit. 2. The use of General Symbols. 3. Connexion of Symbols and Analysis. Chap. XIII. The Doctrine of Motion156 Art. 1. Pure Mechanism. 2. Formal Astronomy. Chap. XIV. Of the Application of Mathematics to the Inductive Sciences 159 Art. 1. The Ideas of Space and Number are clear from the first. 2. Their application in Astronomy. 3. Conic Sections, &c. 4. Arabian Numerals. 5. Newton’s Lemmas. 6. Tides. 7. Mechanics. 8. Optics. 9. Conclusion. xii BOOK III. THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE MECHANICAL SCIENCES. Chap. I. Of the Mechanical Sciences171 Chap. II. Of the Idea of Cause 173 Art. 1. Not derived from Observation, 2. As appears by its use. 3. Cause cannot be observed. 4. Is Cause only constant succession? 5. Other reasons. Chap. III. Modern Opinions respecting the Idea of Cause178 Art. 1.Hume’s Doctrine. 2. Stewart and Brown. 3. Kant. 4. Relation of Kant and Brown. 5. Axioms flow from the Idea. 6. The Idea implies activity in the Mind. Chap. IV. Of the Axioms which relate to the Idea of Cause 184 Art. 1. Causes are Abstract Conceptions. 2. First Axiom. 3. Second Axiom. 4. Limitation of the Second Axiom. 5. Third Axiom. 6. Extent of the Third Axiom. Chap. V. Of the Origin of our Conceptions of Force and Matter 205 Art. 1. Force. 2. Matter. 3. Solidity. 4. Inertia. 5. Application. xiii Chap. VI. Of the Establishment of the Principles of Statics 212 Art. 1. Object of the Chapter. 2. Statics and Dynamics. 3. Equilibrium. 4. Measure of Statical Forces. 5. The Center of Gravity. 6. Oblique Forces. 7. Force acts at any point of its Direction. 8. The Parallelogram of Forces 9. Is a necessary Truth. 10. Center of Gravity descends. 11. Stevinus's Proof. 12. Principle of Virtual Velocities. 13. Fluids press equally. 14. Foundation of this Axiom. Chap. VII. Of the Establishment of the Principles of Dynamics 235 Art. 1. History. 2. The First Law of Motion. 3. Gravity is a Uniform Force. 4. The Second Law of Motion. 5. The Third Law of Motion. 6. Action and Reaction in Moving Bodies. 7. D’Alembert’s Principle. 8. Connexion of Statics and Dynamics. 9. Mechanical Principles grow more evident. 10. Controversy of the Measure of Force. Chap. VIII. Of the Paradox of Universal Propositions obtained from Experience 263 Art. 1. Experience cannot establish necessary Truths; 2. But can interpret Axioms. 3. Gives us the Matter of Truths. 4. Exemplifies Truths. 5. Cannot shake Axioms. 6. Is this applicable in other cases? Chap. IX. Of the Establishment of the Law of Universal Gravitation 272 Art. 1. General course of the History. xiv 2. Particulars as to the Law. 3. As to the Gravity of Matter. 4. Universality of the Law. 5. Is Gravity an essential quality? 6. Newton’s Rule of Philosophizing. 7. Hypotheses respecting Gravity. 8. Do Bodies act at a distance? Chap. X. Of the general Diffusion of clear Mechanical Ideas 279 Art. 1. Nature of the Process 2. Among the Ancients. 3. Kepler, &c. 4. Lord Monboddo, &c. 5. Schelling, &c. 6. Common usage. 7. Effect of Phrases. 8. Contempt of Predecessors. 9. Less detail hereafter. 10. Mechanico-Chemical Sciences. 11. Secondary Mechanical Sciences. BOOK IV. THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE SECONDARY MECHANICAL SCIENCES. Chap. I. Of the Idea of a Medium as commonly employed293 Art. 1. Of Primary and Secondary Qualities. 2. The Idea of Externality. 3. Sensation by a Medium. 4. Process of Perception of Secondary Qualities. Chap. II. On Peculiarities in the Perceptions of the Different Senses 302 Art. 1. Difference of Senses. Sect. I. Prerogatives of Sight. Art. 2. Position. 3. Distance. xv Sect. II. Prerogatives of Hearing. Art. 4. Musical Intervals. 5. Chords. 6. Rhythm. Sect. III. The Paradoxes of Vision. Art. 7. First Paradox. 8. Second Paradox. 9. The same for near Objects. 10. Objections answered. Sect. IV. The Perception of Visible Figures. Art. 11. Brown’s Opinion. Chap. III. Successive Attempts at the Scientific Application of the Idea of a Medium322 Art. 1. Introduction. 2. Sound. 3. Light. 4. Heat. Chap. IV. Of the Measure of Secondary Qualities333 Sect. I. Scales of Qualities in General. Art. 1. Intensity. 2. Quantity and Quality. Sect. II. The Musical Scale. Art. 3. Musical Relations. 4. Musical Standard. Sect. III. Scales of Colour. Art. 5. The Prismatic Scale. 6. Newton’s Scale. 7. Scales of Impure Colours. 8. Chromatometer. Sect. IV. Scales of Light. Art. 9. Photometer. 10. Cyanometer. Sect. V. Scales of Heat. Art. 11. Thermometers. 12. Their progress. 13. Fixed Points. 14. Concordance of Thermometers. 15. Natural Measure. 16. Law of Cooling. xvi 17. Theory of Exchanges. 18. Air Thermometer. 19. Theory of Heat. 20. Other Instruments. Sect. VI. Scales of other Quantities. Art. 21. Tastes and Smells. 22. Quality of Sounds. 23. Articulate Sounds. 24. Transition. BOOK V. OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE MECHANICO-CHEMICAL SCIENCES. Chap. I. Attempts at the Scientific Application of the Idea of Polarity 359 Art. 1. Introduction of the Idea. 2. Magnetism. 3. Electricity. 4. Voltaic Electricity. 5. Light. 6. Crystallization. 7. Chemical Affinity. 8. General Remarks. 9. Like repels like. Chap. II. Of the Connexion of Polarities 371 Art. 1. Different Polar Phenomena from one Cause. 2. Connexion of Magnetic and Electric Polarity. 3. Ampère’s Theory. 4. Faraday’s views. 5. Connexion of Electrical and Chemical Polarity. 6. Davy’s and Faraday’s views 7. Depend upon Ideas as well as Experiments. 8. Faraday’s Anticipations. 9. Connexion of Chemical and Crystalline Polarities. 10. Connexion of Crystalline and Optical Polarities. 11. Connexion of Polarities in general. 12. Schelling’s Speculations. 13. Hegel’s vague notions. 14. Ideas must guide Experiment.
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ВТОРОГО ТОМА.
PAGE BOOK VI. THE PHILOSOPHY OF CHEMISTRY. Chap. I. Attempts to conceive Elementary Composition3 Art. 1. Fundamental Ideas of Chemistry. 2. Elements. 3. Do Compounds resemble their Elements? 4. The Three Principles. 5. A Modern Errour. 6. Are Compounds determined by the Figure of Elements? 7. Crystalline Form depends on Figure of Elements. 8. Are Compounds determined by Mechanical Attraction of Elements? 9. Newton’s followers. 10. Imperfection of their Hypotheses. Chap. II. Establishment and Development of the Idea of Chemical Affinity 15 Art. 1. Early Chemists. 2. Chemical Affinity. 3. Affinity or Attraction? 4. Affinity preferable. 5. Analysis is possible. vi 6. Affinity is Elective. 7. Controversy on this. 8. Affinity is Definite. 9. Are these Principles necessarily true? 10. Composition determines Properties. 11. Comparison on this subject. 12. Composition determines Crystalline Form. Chap. III. Of the Idea of Substance 29 Art. 1. Indestructibility of Substance. 2. The Idea of Substance. 3. Locke’s Denial of Substance. 4. Is all Substance heavy? Note on Sir W. Hamilton’s objections37 Chap. IV. Application of the Idea of Substance in Chemistry 39 Art. 1. A Body is Equal to its Elements. 2. Lavoisier. 3. Are there Imponderable Elements? 4. Faraday’s views. 5. Composition of Water. 6. Heat in Chemistry. Chap. V. The Atomic Theory48 Art. 1. The Theory on Chemical Grounds. 2. Hypothesis of Atoms. 3. Its Chemical Difficulties. 4. Grounds of the Atomic Doctrine. 5. Ancient Atomists. 6. Francis Bacon. 7. Modern Atomists. 8. Arguments for and against. 9. Boscovich’s Theory. 10. Molecular Hypothesis. 11. Poisson’s Inference. 12. Wollaston’s Argument. 13. Properties are Permanent. vii BOOK VII. THE PHILOSOPHY OF MORPHOLOGY, INCLUDING CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. Chap. I. Explication of the Idea of Symmetry67 Art. 1. Symmetry, what. 2. Kinds of Symmetry. 3. Examples in Nature. 4. Vegetables and Animals. 5. Symmetry a Fundamental Idea. 6. Result of Symmetry. Chap. II. Application of the Idea of Symmetry to Crystals 75 Art. 1. ‘Fundamental Forms.’ 2. Their use. 3. ‘Systems of Crystallization.’ 4. Cleavage. 5. Other Properties. Chap. III. Speculations founded upon the Symmetry of Crystals 80 Art. 1. Integrant Molecules. 2. Difficulties of the Theory. 3. Merit of the Theory. 4. Wollaston’s Hypothesis. 5. Maxim for such Hypotheses. 6. Dalton’s Hypothesis. 7. Ampère’s Hypothesis. 8. Difficulty of such Hypotheses. 9. Isomorphism. viii BOOK VIII. PHILOSOPHY OF THE CLASSIFICATORY SCIENCES. Chap. I. The Idea of Likeness as Governing the Use of Common Names95 Art. 1. Object of the Chapter. 2. Unity of the Individual. 3. Condition of Unity. 4. Kinds. 5. Not made by Definitions. 6. Condition of the Use of Terms. 7. Terms may have different Uses. 8. Gradation of Kinds. 9. Characters of Kinds. 10. Difficulty of Definitions. 11. ‘The Five Words.’ Chap. II. The Methods of Natural History, as regulated by the Idea of Likeness 108 Sect. I. Natural History in General. Art. 1. Idea of Likeness in Natural History. 2. Condition of its Use. Sect. II. Terminology. Art. 3. Meaning of the word. Sect. III. The Plan of the System. Art. 4. Its Meaning. 5. Latent Reference to Natural Affinity. 6. Natural Classes. 7. Artificial Classes. 8. Are Genera Natural? 9. Natural History and Mathematics. 10. Natural Groups given by Type, not by Definition. 11. Physiography. 12. Artificial and Natural Systems. ix Sect. IV. Methods of framing Natural Systems. Art. 13. Method of Blind Trial. 14. Method of General Comparison. Sect. V. Gradation of Groups. Art. 15. Series of Subdivisions. 16. What is a Species? 17. The words ‘Species’ and ‘Genus.’ 18. Varieties. Races. Sect. VI. Nomenclature. Art. 19. Binary Nomenclature. Sect. VII. Diagnosis. Art. 20. Characteristick and Systematick. Chap. III. Application of the Natural History Method to Mineralogy 138 Art. 1. Mohs’s System. 2. His ‘Characteristick.’ 3. Mineral Species not yet well fixed. 4. Orders of Minerals. 5. Nomenclature of Minerals. 6. M. Necker’s ‘Règne Mineral.’ 7. Inconvenience of taking a Chemical Basis of Mineral Systems. 8. Relation of Natural History and Chemistry. 9. What is a Mineralogical Individual? 10. A well-formed Crystal is an Individual. 11. Not the Integrant Molecules, 12. Nor the Cleavage Forms. 13. Compound Crystals are not Individuals. 14. Crystalline Forms are sufficiently complete for this. 15. Including aggregate Masses. 16. Do Artificial Crystals belong to Mineralogy? 17. The Mineralogical Individual extends as far as the same Crystalline Axes extend. 18. Artificial Crystals do belong to Mineralogy: x 19. Cannot be excluded. 20. Species to be determined by the Crystalline Power. 21. Secondary Derivative Forms are Varieties: 22. Are not Species, as M. Necker holds. Chap. IV. Of the Idea of Natural Affinity159 Art. 1. The Idea of Affinity 2. Is not to be made out by Arbitrary Rules. 3. Functions of Living things are many, 4. But all lead to the same arrangement. 5. This is Cuvier’s principle: 6. And Decandolle’s. 7. Is this applicable to Inorganic Bodies? 8. Yes; by the agreement of Physical and Chemical Arrangement. BOOK IX. THE PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY. Chap. 1. Analogy of Biology with other Sciences 169 Art. 1. Biology involves the Idea of Life. 2. This Idea to be historically traced. 3. The Idea at first expressed by means of other Ideas. 4. Mystical, Mechanical, Chemical, and Vital Fluid Hypotheses. Chap. II. Successive Biological Hypotheses174 Sect. I. The Mystical School. Sect. II. The Iatrochemical School. Sect. III. The Iatromathematical School. Sect. IV. The Vital Fluid School. Sect. V. The Psychical School. xi Chap. III. Attempts to Analyse the Idea of Life195 Art. 1. Definitions of Life, 2. By Stahl, Humboldt, Kant. 3. Definition of Organization by Kant. 4. Life is a System of Functions. 5. Bichat. Sum of Functions. 6. Use of Definition. 7. Cuvier’s view. 8. Classifications of Functions. 9. Vital, Natural, and Animal Functions. 10. Bichat. Organic and Animal Life. 11. Use of this Classification. Chap. IV. Attempts to form Ideas of separate Vital Forces, and first, of Assimilation and Secretion203 Sect. I. Course of Biological Research. Art. 1. Observation and New Conceptions. Sect. II. Attempts to form a distinct Conception of Assimilation and Secretion. Art. 2. The Ancients. 3. Buffon. Interior Mould. 4. Defect of this view. 5. Cuvier. Life a Vortex. 6. Defect of this view. 7. Schelling. Matter and Form. 8. Life a constant Form of circulating Matter, &c. Sect. III. Attempts to conceive the Forces of Assimilation and Secretion. Art. 9. Assimilation is a Vital Force. 10. The name ‘Assimilation.’ 11. Several processes involved in Assimilation. 12. Absorption. Endosmose. 13. Absorption involves a Vital Force. 14. Secretion. Glands. 15. Motions of Vital Fluids. xii Sect. IV. Attempts to conceive the Process of Generation. Art. 16. ‘Reproduction’ figuratively used for Generation. 17. Nutrition different from 18. Generation. 19. Generations successively included. 20. Pre-existence of Germs. 21. Difficulty of this view. 22. Communication of Vital Forces. 23. Close similarity of Nutrition and Generation. 24. The Identity of the two Processes exemplified. Chap. V. Attempts to form Ideas of separate Vital Forces, continued.—Voluntary Motion.222 Art. 1. Voluntary Motion one of the animal Functions. 2. Progressive knowledge of it. 3. Nervous Fluid not electric. 4. Irritability. Glisson. 5. Haller. 6. Contractility. 7. Organic Sensibility and Contractility not separable. 8. Improperly described by Bichat. 9. Brown. 10. Contractility a peculiar Power. 11. Cuvier’s view. 12. Elementary contractile Action. 13. Strength of Muscular Fibre. 14. Sensations become Perceptions 15. By means of Ideas; 16. And lead to Muscular Actions. 17. Volition comes between Perception and Action. 18. Transition to Psychology, 19. A center is introduced. 20. The central consciousness may be obscure. 21. Reflex Muscular Action. 22. Instinct. 23. Difficulty of conceiving Instinct. 24. Instinct opposed to Insight. xiii Chap. VI. Of the Idea of Final Causes 239 Art. 1. Organization. Parts are Ends and Means. 2. Not merely mutually dependent. 3. Not merely mutually Cause and Effect. 4. Notion of End not derived from Facts. 5. This notion has regulated Physiology. 6. Notion of Design comes from within. 7. Design not understood by Savages. 8. Design opposed to Morphology. 9. Impression of Design when fresh. 10. Acknowledgement of an End by adverse Physiologists. 11. This included in the Notion of Disease. 12. It belongs to organized Creatures only. 13. The term Final Cause. 14. Law and Design. 15. Final Causes and Morphology. 16. Expressions of physiological Ends. 17. The Conditions of Existence. 18. The asserted presumption of Teleology. 19. Final Causes in other subjects. 20. Transition to Palætiology. BOOK X. THE PHILOSOPHY OF PALÆTIOLOGY. Chap. I. Of Palætiological Sciences in General257 Art. 1. Description of Palætiology. 2. Its Members. 3. Other Members. 4. Connexion of the whole subject. 5. We shall take Material Sciences only; 6. But these are connected with others. Chap. II. Of the Three Members of a Palætiological Science 263 Art. 1. Divisions of such Sciences. 2. The Study of Causes. 3. Ætiology. xiv 4. Phenomenology requires Classification. Phenomenal Geology. 5. Phenomenal Uranology. 6. Phenomenal Geography of Plants and Animals. 7. Phenomenal Glossology. 8. The Study of Phenomena leads to Theory. 9. No sound Theory without Ætiology. 10. Causes in Palætiology. 11. Various kinds of Cause. 12. Hypothetical Order of Palætiological Causes. 13. Mode of Cultivating Ætiology:—In Geology: 14. In the Geography of Plants and Animals: 15. In Languages. 16. Construction of Theories. 17. No sound Palætiological Theory yet extant. Chap. III. Of the Doctrine of Catastrophes and the Doctrine of Uniformity284 Art. 1. Doctrine of Catastrophes. 2. Doctrine of Uniformity. 3. Is Uniformity probable a priori? 4. Cycle of Uniformity indefinite. 5. Uniformitarian Arguments are Negative only. 6. Uniformity in the Organic World. 7. Origin of the present Organic World. 8. Nebular Origin of the Solar System. 9. Origin of Languages. 10. No Natural Origin discoverable. Chap. IV. Of the Relation of Tradition to Palætiology297 Art. 1. Importance of Tradition. 2. Connexion of Tradition and Science. 3. Natural and Providential History of the World. 4. The Sacred Narrative. 5. Difficulties in interpreting the Sacred Narrative. 6. Such Difficulties inevitable. 7. Science tells us nothing concerning Creation. xv 8. Scientific views, when familiar, do not disturb the authority of Scripture. 9. When should Old Interpretations be given up? 10. In what Spirit should the Change be accepted? 11. In what Spirit should the Change be urged? 12. Duty of Mutual forbearance. 13. Case of Galileo. Chap. V. Of the Conception of a First Cause316 Art. 1. The Origin of things is not naturally discoverable; 2. Yet has always been sought after. 3. There must be a First Cause. 4. This is an Axiom. 5. Involved in the proof of a Deity. 6. The mind is not satisfied without it. 7. The Whole Course of Nature must have a Cause. 8. Necessary Existence of God. 9. Forms of the Proof. 10. Idea of a First Cause is Necessary. 11. Conception of a First Cause. 12. The First Cause in all Sciences is the same. 13. We are thus led to Moral Subjects. Conclusion of this History.