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ОСНОВАНИЯ
ГЕОМЕТРИИ.
Лондон: К. Дж. КЛЕЙ И СЫНОВЬЯ,
ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО КЕМБРИДЖСКОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА, АВЕНЮ МАРИЯ ЛЕЙН.
Глазго: 263, АРГАЙЛ-СТРИТ.
Лейпциг: Ф. А. БРОКГАУЗ. Нью-Йорк: ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО «МАКМИЛЛАН». Бомбей: ДЖОРДЖ БЕЛЛ И СЫНОВЬЯ.
ЭССЕ ОБ ОСНОВАНИЯХ ГЕОМЕТРИИ
АВТОР:
БЕРТРАН А. У. РАССЕЛ, магистр искусств.
ЧЛЕН ТРИНИТИ-КОЛЛЕДЖА, КЕМБРИДЖ.
КЕМБРИДЖ:
В УНИВЕРСИТЕТСКОМ ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВЕ.
1897
[Все права защищены.]
Кембридж: ОТПЕЧАТАНО Дж. И К. Ф. КЛЕЕМ, В УНИВЕРСИТЕТСКОМ ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВЕ.
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ.
Настоящая работа основана на диссертации, представленной на экзамене на получение стипендии Тринити-колледжа в Кембридже в 1895 году. Раздел B третьей главы представляет собой в основном перепечатку, с некоторыми существенными изменениями, статьи из журнала «Mind» (новая серия, № 17). Содержание книги было изложено в форме лекций в Университете Джонса Хопкинса в Балтиморе и в колледже Брин-Мор в Пенсильвании.
Моя главная благодарность — профессору Клейну. На протяжении всей первой главы его «Лекции по неевклидовой геометрии» служили мне бесценным руководством; я принял от него деление метагеометрии на три периода и обнаружил, что моя историческая работа была значительно облегчена его ссылками на предыдущих авторов. В логике я больше всего почерпнул у мистера Брэдли, а вслед за ним — у Зигварта и доктора Бозанкета. По ряду важных вопросов я получил полезные предложения из «Принципов психологии» профессора Джеймса.
Я выражаю благодарность мистеру Дж. Ф. Стауту и мистеру А. Н. Уайтхеду за любезное прочтение моих корректур и помощь в виде многих полезных замечаний. Мистеру Уайтхеду я также обязан неоценимой поддержкой в виде постоянной критики и предложений на протяжении всего процесса написания, особенно в том, что касается философского значения проективной геометрии.
Хазлмир.
Май, 1897 г.
ПОСВЯЩАЕТСЯ
ДЖОНУ МАКТАГАРТУ ЭЛЛИСУ МАКТАГАРТУ
ЧЬИМ БЕСЕДАМ И ДРУЖБЕ ОБЯЗАНА
СВОИМ СУЩЕСТВОВАНИЕМ ЭТА КНИГА.
ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ.
INTRODUCTION. OUR PROBLEM DEFINED BY ITS RELATIONS TO LOGIC, PSYCHOLOGY AND MATHEMATICS. PAGE 1.The problem first received a modern form through Kant, who connected the à priori with the subjective1 2.A mental state is subjective, for Psychology, when its immediate cause does not lie in the outer world2 3.A piece of knowledge is à priori, for Epistemology, when without it knowledge would be impossible2 4.The subjective and the à priori belong respectively to Psychology and to Epistemology. The latter alone will be investigated in this essay3 5.My test of the à priori will be purely logical: what knowledge is necessary for experience?3 6.But since the necessary is hypothetical, we must include, in the à priori, the ground of necessity4 7.This may be the essential postulate of our science, or the element, in the subject-matter, which is necessary to experience;4 8.Which, however, are both at bottom the same ground5 9.Forecast of the work5 CHAPTER I. A SHORT HISTORY OF METAGEOMETRY.
10.Metageometry began by rejecting the axiom of parallels7 11.Its history may be divided into three periods: the synthetic, the metrical and the projective7 12.The first period was inaugurated by Gauss,10
13.Whose suggestions were developed independently by Lobatchewsky10 14.And Bolyai11 15.The purpose of all three was to show that the axiom of parallels could not be deduced from the others, since its denial did not lead to contradictions12 16.The second period had a more philosophical aim, and was inspired chiefly by Gauss and Herbart13 17.The first work of this period, that of Riemann, invented two new conceptions:14 18.The first, that of a manifold, is a class-conception, containing space as a species,14 19.And defined as such that its determinations form a collection of magnitudes15 20.The second, the measure of curvature of a manifold, grew out of curvature in curves and surfaces16 21.By means of Gauss's analytical formula for the curvature of surfaces,19 22.Which enables us to define a constant measure of curvature of a three-dimensional space without reference to a fourth dimension20 23.The main result of Riemann's mathematical work was to show that, if magnitudes are independent of place, the measure of curvature of space must be constant21 24.Helmholtz, who was more of a philosopher than a mathematician,22 25.Gave a new but incorrect formulation of the essential axioms,23 26.And deduced the quadratic formula for the infinitesimal arc, which Riemann had assumed24 27.Beltrami gave Lobatchewsky's planimetry a Euclidean interpretation,25 28.Which is analogous to Cayley's theory of distance;26 29.And dealt with n-dimensional spaces of constant negative curvature27 30.The third period abandons the metrical methods of the second, and extrudes the notion of spatial quantity27 31.Cayley reduced metrical properties to projective properties, relative to a certain conic or quadric, the Absolute;28 32.And Klein showed that the Euclidean or non-Euclidean systems result, according to the nature of the Absolute;29 33.Hence Euclidean space appeared to give rise to all the kinds of Geometry, and the question, which is true, appeared reduced to one of convention30 34.But this view is due to a confusion as to the nature of the coordinates employed30
35.Projective coordinates have been regarded as dependent on distance, and thus really metrical31 36.But this is not the case, since anharmonic ratio can be projectively defined32 37.Projective coordinates, being purely descriptive, can give no information as to metrical properties, and the reduction of metrical to projective properties is purely technical33 38.The true connection of Cayley's measure of distance with non-Euclidean Geometry is that suggested by Beltrami's Saggio, and worked out by Sir R. Ball,36 39.Which provides a Euclidean equivalent for every non-Euclidean proposition, and so removes the possibility of contradictions in Metageometry38 40.Klein's elliptic Geometry has not been proved to have a corresponding variety of space39 41.The geometrical use of imaginaries, of which Cayley demanded a philosophical discussion,41 42.Has a merely technical validity,42 43.And is capable of giving geometrical results only when it begins and ends with real points and figures45 44.We have now seen that projective Geometry is logically prior to metrical Geometry, but cannot supersede it46 45.Sophus Lie has applied projective methods to Helmholtz's formulation of the axioms, and has shown the axiom of Monodromy to be superfluous46 46.Metageometry has gradually grown independent of philosophy, but has grown continually more interesting to philosophy50 47.Metrical Geometry has three indispensable axioms,50 48.Which we shall find to be not results, but conditions, of measurement,51 49.And which are nearly equivalent to the three axioms of projective Geometry52 50.Both sets of axioms are necessitated, not by facts, but by logic52 CHAPTER II. CRITICAL ACCOUNT OF SOME PREVIOUS PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES OF GEOMETRY.
51.A criticism of representative modern theories need not begin before Kant54 52.Kant's doctrine must be taken, in an argument about Geometry, on its purely logical side55
53.Kant contends that since Geometry is apodeictic, space must be à priori and subjective, while since space is à priori and subjective, Geometry must be apodeictic55 54.Metageometry has upset the first line of argument, not the second56 55.The second may be attacked by criticizing either the distinction of synthetic and analytic judgments, or the first two arguments of the metaphysical deduction of space57 56.Modern Logic regards every judgment as both synthetic and analytic,57 57.But leaves the à priori, as that which is presupposed in the possibility of experience59 58.Kant's first two arguments as to space suffice to prove some form of externality, but not necessarily Euclidean space, a necessary condition of experience60 59.Among the successors of Kant, Herbart alone advanced the theory of Geometry, by influencing Riemann62 60.Riemann regarded space as a particular kind of manifold, i.e. wholly quantitatively63 61.He therefore unduly neglected the qualitative adjectives of space64 62.His philosophy rests on a vicious disjunction65 63.His definition of a manifold is obscure,66 64.And his definition of measurement applies only to space67 65.Though mathematically invaluable, his view of space as a manifold is philosophically misleading69 66.Helmholtz attacked Kant both on the mathematical and on the psychological side;70 67.But his criterion of apriority is changeable and often invalid;71 68.His proof that non-Euclidean spaces are imaginable is inconclusive;72 69.And his assertion of the dependence of measurement on rigid bodies, which may be taken in three senses,74 70.Is wholly false if it means that the axiom of Congruence actually asserts the existence of rigid bodies,75 71.Is untrue if it means that the necessary reference of geometrical propositions to matter renders pure Geometry empirical,76 72.And is inadequate to his conclusion if it means, what is true, that actual measurement involves approximately rigid bodies78 73.Geometry deals with an abstract matter, whose physical properties are disregarded; and Physics must presuppose Geometry80 74.Erdmann accepted the conclusions of Riemann and Helmholtz,81
75.And regarded the axioms as necessarily successive steps in classifying space as a species of manifold82 76.His deduction involves four fallacious assumptions, namely:82 77.That conceptions must be abstracted from a series of instances;83 78.That all definition is classification;83 79.That conceptions of magnitude can be applied to space as a whole;84 80.And that if conceptions of magnitude could be so applied, all the adjectives of space would result from their application86 81.Erdmann regards Geometry alone as incapable of deciding on the truth of the axiom of Congruence,86 82.Which he affirms to be empirically proved by Mechanics.88 83.The variety and inadequacy of Erdmann's tests of apriority89 84.Invalidate his final conclusions on the theory of Geometry90 85.Lotze has discussed two questions in the theory of Geometry:93 86.(1) He regards the possibility of non-Euclidean spaces as suggested by the subjectivity of space,93 87.And rejects it owing to a mathematical misunderstanding,96 88.Having missed the most important sense of their possibility,96 89.Which is that they fulfil the logical conditions to which any form of externality must conform97 90.(2) He attacks the mathematical procedure of Metageometry98 91.The attack begins with a question-begging definition of parallels99 92.Lotze maintains that all apparent departures from Euclid could be physically explained, a view which really makes Euclid empirical99 93.His criticism of Helmholtz's analogies rests wholly on mathematical mistakes101 94.His proof that space must have three dimensions rests on neglect of different orders of infinity104 95.He attacks non-Euclidean spaces on the mistaken ground that they are not homogeneous107 96.Lotze's objections fall under four heads108 97.Two other semi-philosophical objections may be urged,109 98.One of which, the absence of similarity, has been made the basis of attack by Delbœuf,110 99.But does not form a valid ground of objection111 100.Recent French speculation on the foundations of Geometry has suggested few new views112 101.All homogeneous spaces are à priori possible, and the decision between them is empirical114 CHAPTER III. Section A. the axioms of projective geometry.
102.Projective Geometry does not deal with magnitude, and applies to all spaces alike117 103.It will be found wholly à priori117 104.Its axioms have not yet been formulated philosophically118 105.Coordinates, in projective Geometry, are not spatial magnitudes, but convenient names for points118 106.The possibility of distinguishing various points is an axiom119 107.The qualitative relations between points, dealt with by projective Geometry, are presupposed by the quantitative treatment119 108.The only qualitative relation between two points is the straight line, and all straight lines are qualitatively similar120 109.Hence follows, by extension, the principle of projective transformation121 110.By which figures qualitatively indistinguishable from a given figure are obtained122 111.Anharmonic ratio may and must be descriptively defined122 112.The quadrilateral construction is essential to the projective definition of points,123 113.And can be projectively defined,124 114.By the general principle of projective transformation126 115.The principle of duality is the mathematical form of a philosophical circle,127 116.Which is an inevitable consequence of the relativity of space, and makes any definition of the point contradictory128 117.We define the point as that which is spatial, but contains no space, whence other definitions follow128 118.What is meant by qualitative equivalence in Geometry?129 119.Two pairs of points on one straight line, or two pairs of straight lines through one point, are qualitatively equivalent129 120.This explains why four collinear points are needed, to give an intrinsic relation by which the fourth can be descriptively defined when the first three are given130 121.Any two projectively related figures are qualitatively equivalent, i.e. differ in no non-quantitative conceptual property131 122.Three axioms are used by projective Geometry,132
123.And are required for qualitative spatial comparison,132 124.Which involves the homogeneity, relativity and passivity of space133 125.The conception of a form of externality,134 126.Being a creature of the intellect, can be dealt with by pure mathematics134 127.The resulting doctrine of extension will be, for the moment, hypothetical135 128.But is rendered assertorical by the necessity, for experience, of some form of externality136 129.Any such form must be relational136 130.And homogeneous137 131.And the relations constituting it must appear infinitely divisible137 132.It must have a finite integral number of dimensions,139 133.Owing to its passivity and homogeneity140 134.And to the systematic unity of the world140 135.A one-dimensional form alone would not suffice for experience141 136.Since its elements would be immovably fixed in a series142 137.Two positions have a relation independent of other positions,143 138.Since positions are wholly defined by mutually independent relations143 139.Hence projective Geometry is wholly à priori,146 140.Though metrical Geometry contains an empirical element146 Section B. the axioms of metrical geometry.
141.Metrical Geometry is distinct from projective, but has the same fundamental postulate147 142.It introduces the new idea of motion, and has three à priori axioms148 I. The Axiom of Free Mobility.
143.Measurement requires a criterion of spatial equality149 144.Which is given by superposition, and involves the axiom of Free Mobility150 145.The denial of this axiom involves an action of empty space on things151 146.There is a mathematically possible alternative to the axiom,152 147.Which, however, is logically and philosophically untenable153 148.Though Free Mobility is à priori, actual measurement is empirical154
149.Some objections remain to be answered, concerning—154 150.(1) The comparison of volumes and of Kant's symmetrical objects154 151.(2) The measurement of time, where congruence is impossible156 152.(3) The immediate perception of spatial magnitude; and157 153.(4) The Geometry of non-congruent surfaces158 154.Free Mobility includes Helmholtz's Monodromy159 155.Free Mobility involves the relativity of space159 156.From which, reciprocally, it can be deduced160 157.Our axiom is therefore à priori in a double sense160 II. The Axiom of Dimensions.
158.Space must have a finite integral number of dimensions161 159.But the restriction to three is empirical162 160.The general axiom follows from the relativity of position162 161.The limitation to three dimensions, unlike most empirical knowledge, is accurate and certain163 III. The Axiom of Distance.
162.The axiom of distance corresponds, here, to that of the straight line in projective Geometry164 163.The possibility of spatial measurement involves a magnitude uniquely determined by two points,164 164.Since two points must have some relation, and the passivity of space proves this to be independent of external reference165 165.There can be only one such relation166 166.This must be measured by a curve joining the two points,166 167.And the curve must be uniquely determined by the two points167 168.Spherical Geometry contains an exception to this axiom,168 169.Which, however, is not quite equivalent to Euclid's168 170.The exception is due to the fact that two points, in spherical space, may have an external relation unaltered by motion,169 171.Which, however, being a relation of linear magnitude, presupposes the possibility of linear magnitude170 172.A relation between two points must be a line joining them170 173.Conversely, the existence of a unique line between two points can be deduced from the nature of a form of externality,171 174.And necessarily leads to distance, when quantity is applied to it172
175.Hence the axiom of distance, also, is à priori in a double sense172 176.No metrical coordinate system can be set up without the straight line174 177.No axioms besides the above three are necessary to metrical Geometry175 178.But these three are necessary to the direct measurement of any continuum176 179.Two philosophical questions remain for a final chapter177 CHAPTER IV. PHILOSOPHICAL CONSEQUENCES.
180.What is the relation to experience of a form of externality in general?178 181.This form is the class-conception, containing every possible intuition of externality; and some such intuition is necessary to experience178 182.What relation does this view bear to Kant's?179 183.It is less psychological, since it does not discuss whether space is given in sensation,180 184.And maintains that not only space, but any form of externality which renders experience possible, must be given in sense-perception181 185.Externality should mean, not externality to the Self, but the mutual externality of presented things181 186.Would this be unknowable without a given form of externality?182 187.Bradley has proved that space and time preclude the existence of mere particulars,182 188.And that knowledge requires the This to be neither simple nor self-subsistent183 189.To prove that experience requires a form of externality, I assume that all knowledge requires the recognition of identity in difference184 190.Such recognition involves time184 191.And some other form giving simultaneous diversity185 192.The above argument has not deduced sense-perception from the categories, but has shown the former, unless it contains a certain element, to be unintelligible to the latter186 193.How to account for the realization of this element, is a question for metaphysics187