Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 71, § 85; E. Monseur, Le Folklore Wallon (Brussels, n.d.), p. 29; H. Zahler, Die Krankheit im Volksglauben des Simmenthals (Bern, 1898), p. 93; R. Andree, Braunschweiger Volkskunde (Brunswick, 1896), p. 306. 152. A. Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 483. 153. Thiers, Souché, Strackerjan, Monseur, ll.cc.; J. G. Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1902), p. 95. 154. Ch. Rogers, Social Life in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. 226. 155. G. Lammert, Volksmedizin und medizinischer Aberglaube in Bayern (Würzburg, 1869), p. 264. 156. Ibid. p. 263. 157. J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 167, § 1180. 158. L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), i. 71, § 85. 159. Geoponica, xiii. 9, xv. 1; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxviii. 155. The authorities for these cures are respectively Apuleius and Democritus. The latter is probably not the atomic philosopher. See J. G. Frazer, “The Language of Animals,” The Archæological Review, vol. i. (May, 1888) p. 180, note 140. 160. Marcellus, De medicamentis, xii. 24. 161. W. G. Black, Folk-medicine (London, 1883), pp. 35 sq. 162. Marcellus, De medicamentis, xvii. 18. 163. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxx. 61; Marcellus, De medicamentis, xxvii. 33. The latter writer mentions (op. cit. xxviii. 123) that the same malady might similarly be transferred to a live frog. 164. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxx. 64; Marcellus, De medicamentis, xxviii. 132. 165. Marcellus, De medicamentis, xxix. 35. 166. W. Henderson, Folk-lore of the Northern Counties (London, 1879), p. 143; W. G. Black, Folk-medicine, p. 35; Marie Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales (London, 1909), p. 226. 167. L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), i. 72, § 86. 168. J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 166, § 1173, quoting Kuhn's translation of Rig-veda, x. 97. 13. A slightly different translation of the verse is given by H. Grassmann, who here follows R. Roth (Rig-veda übersetzt, vol. ii. p. 379). Compare Hymns of the Rigveda, translated by R. T. H. Griffith (Benares, 1889-1892), iv. 312. 169. L. Strackerjan, op. cit. i. 72, § 87. 170. W. Henderson, Folk-lore of the Northern Counties (London, 1879), p. 143. 171. J. D. H. Temme, Die Volkssagen der Altmark (Berlin, 1839), p. 83; A. Kuhn, Märkische Sagen und Märchen (Berlin, 1843), p. 384, § 62. 172. R. Wuttke, Sächsische Volkskunde2 (Dresden, 1901), p. 372. 173. J. V. Grohmann, op. cit. p. 230, § 1663. A similar remedy is prescribed in Bavaria. See G. Lammert, Volksmedizin und medizinischer Aberglaube in Bayern (Würzburg, 1869), p. 249. 174. J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 375; W. G. Black, Folk-medicine, p. 46. 175. Marie Trevelyan, Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales (London, 1909), pp. 229 sq. 176. B. Schmidt, Das Volksleben der Neugriechen (Leipsic, 1871), p. 82. 177. A. Kuhn, Märkische Sagen und Märchen (Berlin, 1843), p. 386. 178. L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), i. 74, § 91. 179. F. J. Wiedemann, Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten (St. Petersburg, 1876), pp. 451 sq. 180. Le Tour du Monde, lxvii. (1894) p. 308; id., Nouvelle Série, v. (1899) p. 521. 181. F. S. Krauss, Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven (Münster i. W., 1890), pp. 35 sq. 182. F. S. Krauss, op. cit. p. 39. 183. A. Strausz, Die Bulgaren (Leipsic, 1898), p. 400, compare p. 401. 184. Blackwood's Magazine, February 1886, p. 239. 185. Z. Zanetti, La medicina delle nostre donne (Città di Castello, 1892), p. 73. 186. J. B. Thiers, Traité des Superstitions (Paris, 1679), pp. 323 sq. 187. J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 167, § 1178. A Belgian cure of the same sort is reported by J. W. Wolf (Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, Göttingen, 1852-1857, i. 223 (wrongly numbered 219), § 256). 188. L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), i. 74, § 90. 189. J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie4 (Berlin, 1875-1878), ii. 979. 190. Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iv. 2 (Munich, 1867), p. 406. 191. A. Schleicher, Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg (Weimar, 1858), p. 150; A. Witschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 283, § 82. 192. W. Kolbe, Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebrauche2 (Marburg, 1888), pp. 88 sq. 193. C. Meyer, Der Aberglaube des Mittelalters (Bâle, 1884), p. 104. 194. H. Zahler, Die Krankheit im Volksglauben des Simmenthals (Bern, 1898), p. 94. 195. W. G. Black, Folk-medicine, p. 38. 196. F. Chapiseau, Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche (Paris, 1902), i. 213. 197. W. G. Black, Folk-medicine, p. 39. 198. A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 310, § 490. 199. J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren, p. 165, § 1160. 200. L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, ii. 74 sq., § 89. 201. J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 979. 202. T. J. Pettigrew, On Superstitions connected with the History and Practice of Medicine and Surgery (London, 1844), p. 77; W. G. Black, Folk-medicine, p. 37. 203. J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren, p. 167, § 1182. 204. L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, i. 73, § 89; A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2 pp. 309 sq., § 490. 205. L. F. Sauvé, Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), p. 40; A. Meyrac, Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes (Charleville, 1890), p. 174; A. Schleicher, Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg (Weimer, 1858), p. 149; J. A. E. Köhler, Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande (Leipsic, 1867), p. 414; A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 283, § 79; H. Zahler, Die Krankheit im Volksglauben des Simmenthals (Bern, 1898), p. 93. 206. R. Andree, Braunschweiger Volkskunde (Brunswick, 1896), p. 307. 207. A. Kuhn, Märkische Sagen und Märchen (Berlin, 1843), p. 384, § 66. 208. H. Zahler, loc. cit. 209. P. Wagler, Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit, i. (Wurzen, n.d.) p. 23. 210. E. Doutté, Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord (Algiers, 1908), p. 436. 211. W. Crooke, The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 436 sq.; compare id., Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), i. 43, 162. Compare E. Thurston, Ethnographic Notes in Southern India (Madras, 1906), pp. 313, 331. 212. W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), i. 102 sq. 213. Mrs. Bishop, Korea and her Neighbours (London, 1898), ii. 143 sq. 214. P. Giran, Magie et Religion Annamites (Paris, 1912), pp. 132 sq. 215. R. C. Maclagan, “Notes on folk-lore Objects collected in Argyleshire,” Folk-lore, vi. (1895) p. 158. 216. R. Andree, Braunschweiger Volkskunde (Brunswick, 1896), p. 307. 217. F. Chapiseau, Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche (Paris, 1902), i. 170. 218. E. Doutté, Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord (Algiers, 1908), pp. 228 sq. 219. J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren, p. 116, § 1172. 220. A. Leared, Morocco and the Moors (London, 1876), pp. 275 sqq. 221. R. C. Thompson, Semitic Magic (London, 1908), p. 17. It would seem that in Macedonia demons and ghosts can be hammered into walls. See G. F. Abbott, Macedonian Folklore (Cambridge, 1903), p. 221. In Chittagong, as soon as a coffin has been carried out of the house, a nail is knocked into the threshold “to prevent death from entering the dwelling, at least for a time.” See Th. Bérengier, “Les funérailles à Chittagong,” Les Missions Catholiques, xiii. (1881) p. 504. 222. E. W. Lane, Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians (Paisley and London, 1895), ch. x. p. 240. 223. R. C. Thompson, Semitic Magic (London, 1908), p. 18. 224. L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, ii. 120, § 428 a. A similar story is told of a house in Neuenburg (op. cit. ii. 182, § 512 c). 225. Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6. 24. 226. Livy, vii. 1-3. The plague raged from 365 to 363 b.c., when it was happily stayed in the manner described in the text. 227. Livy, ix. 28. This happened in the year 313 b.c. 228. Livy, viii. 18. These events took place in 331 b.c. 229. Livy, vii. 3. Livy says nothing as to the place where the nails were affixed; but from Festus (p. 56 ed. C. O. Müller) we learn that it was the wall of a temple, and as the date of the ceremony was also the date of the dedication of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol (Plutarch, Publicola, 14), we may fairly conjecture that this temple was the scene of the rite. It is the more necessary to call attention to the uncertainty which exists on this point because modern writers, perhaps misunderstanding the words of Livy, have commonly stated as a fact what is at best only a more or less probable hypothesis. Octavian seems to have provided for the knocking of a nail into the temple of Mars by men who had held the office of censor. See Dio Cassius, lv. 10, ἧλόν τε αὐτῷ ὑπὸ τῶν τιμητευσάντων προσπήγνυσθαι. 230. Livy, vii. 3. Festus speaks (p. 56 ed. C. O. Müller) of “the annual nail, which was fixed in the walls of temples for the purpose of numbering the years,” as if the practice were common. From Cicero's passing reference to the custom (“Ex hoc die clavum anni movebis,” Epist. ad Atticum, v. 15. 1) we see that it was matter of notoriety. Hence we may safely reject Mommsen's theory, which Mr. W. Warde Fowler is disposed to accept (The Roman Festivals of the period of the Republic, London, 1899, pp. 234 sq.), that the supposed annual custom never existed except in the brains of Roman Dryasdusts. 231. See Livy and Festus, ll.cc. 232. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxviii. 63. 233. County Folk-lore, Suffolk, edited by Lady E. C. Gurdon (London, 1893), p. 14. In the north-west Highlands of Scotland it used to be customary to bury a black cock alive on the spot where an epileptic patient fell down. Along with the cock were buried parings of the patient's nails and a lock of his hair. See (Sir) Arthur Mitchell, On various Superstitions in the North-West Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1862), p. 26; J. G. Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1902), p. 97. Probably the disease was supposed to be buried with the cock in the ground. The ancient Hindoos imagined that epilepsy was caused by a dog-demon. When a boy fell down in a fit, his father or other competent person used to wrap the sufferer in a net, and carry him into the hall, not through the door, but through an opening made for the purpose in the roof. Then taking up some earth in the middle of the hall, at the place where people gambled, he sprinkled the spot with water, cast dice on it, and laid the boy on his back on the dice. After that he prayed to the dog-demon, saying, “Doggy, let him loose! Reverence be to thee, barker, bender! Doggy, let him loose! Reverence be to thee, barker, bender!” See The Grihya Sutras, translated by H. Oldenberg, Part i. (Oxford, 1886) pp. 296 sq.; id. Part ii. (Oxford, 1892) pp. 219 sq., 286 sq. (Sacred Books of the East, vols. xxix. and xxx.). Apparently the place where people gambled was for some reason supposed to be a spot where an epileptic could divest himself most readily of his malady. But the connexion of thought is obscure. 234. The analogy of the Roman custom to modern superstitious practices has been rightly pointed out by Mr. E. S. Hartland (Folk-lore, iv. (1893) pp. 457, 464; Legend of Perseus, ii. 188), but I am unable to accept his general explanation of these and some other practices as modes of communion with a divinity. 235. A. Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste (Jena, 1874-1875), ii. 176. 236. A. Bastian, op. cit. ii. 175-178. Compare Father Campana, “Congo, Mission Catholique de Landana,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxvii. (1895) p. 93; Notes Analytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du Musée du Congo, i. (Brussels, 1902-1906) pp. 153, 246; B. H. Mullen, “Fetishes from Landana, South-West Africa,” Man, v. (1905) pp. 102-104; R. E. Dennett, “Bavili Notes,” Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 382 sqq.; id., At the Back of the Black Man's Mind (London, 1906), pp. 85 sqq., 91 sqq. The Ethnological Museum at Berlin possesses a number of rude images from Loango and Congo, which are thickly studded with nails hammered into their bodies. The intention of the custom, as explained to me by Professor von Luschan, is to pain the fetish and so to refresh his memory, lest he should forget to do his duty. 237. Sir John Rhys, “Celtae and Galli,” Proceedings of the British Academy, ii. (1905-1906) pp. 114 sq. 238. Lafcadio Hearn, Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan (London, 1894), ii. 598 sq., note. 239. A. Oldfield, “The Aborigines of Australia,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, N.S., iii. (1865) p. 228. 240. J. Büttikoffer, “Einiges über die Eingebornen von Liberia,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, i. (1888) p. 85. 241. Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa (London, 1897) pp. 442 sq. 242. G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in Westafrika,” Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, xii. (1877) pp. 412-414. Full details as to the religious creed of the Ewes, including their belief in a Supreme Being (Mawu), are given, to a great extent in the words of the natives themselves, by the German missionary Jakob Spieth in his elaborate and valuable works Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906) and Die Religion der Eweer in Süd-Togo (Leipsic, 1911). As to Mawu in particular, the meaning of whose name is somewhat uncertain, see J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme, pp. 421 sqq.; Die Religion der Eweer in Süd-Togo, pp. 15 sqq. 243. Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper Congo River,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xl. (1910) p. 377. 244. Rev. John H. Weeks, Among Congo Cannibals (London, 1913), p. 261. 245. Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper Congo River,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xl. (1910) pp. 368, 370. The singular form of mingoli is mongoli, “a disembodied spirit.” Compare id., Among Congo Cannibals (London, 1913), p. 252; and again ibid. p. 275. But great as is the fear of evil spirits among the natives of the Congo, their dread of witchcraft seems to be still more intense. See Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,” Folk-lore, xx. (1909) pp. 51 sq.: “The belief in witchcraft affects their lives in a vast number of ways, and touches them socially at a hundred different points. It regulates their actions, modifies their mode of thought and speech, controls their conduct towards each other, causes cruelty and callousness in a people not naturally cruel, and sets the various members of a family against each other. A man may believe any theory he likes about creation, about God, and about the abode of departed spirits, but he must believe in witches and their influence for evil, and must in unmistakable terms give expression to that belief, or be accused of witchcraft himself.... But for witchcraft no one would die, and the earnest longing of all right-minded men and women is to clear it out of the country by killing every discovered witch. It is an act of self-preservation.... Belief in witches is interwoved into the very fibre of every Bantu-speaking man and woman, and the person who does not believe in them is a monster, a witch, to be killed as soon as possible.” Could we weigh against each other the two great terrors which beset the minds of savages all over the world, it seems probable that the dread of witches would be found far to outweigh the dread of evil spirits. However, it is the fear of evil spirits with which we are at present concerned. 246. G. McCall Theal, Records of South-Eastern Africa, vii. (1901) pp. 405 sq. 247. On this subject Mr. Dudley Kidd has made some judicious observations (Savage Childhood, London, 1906, pp. 131 sq.). He says: “The Kafirs certainly do not live in everlasting dread of spirits, for the chief part of their life is not spent in thinking at all. A merrier set of people it would be hard to find. They are so easy-going that it would seem to them too much burden to be for ever thinking of spirits.” 248. (Sir) E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana. (London, 1883), pp. 356 sq. As to the dread which the Brazilian Indians entertain of demons, see J. B. von Spix and C. F. Ph. von Martius, Reise in Brasilien (Munich, 1823-1831), iii. 1108-1111. 249. W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), pp. 118, 119. 250. L. M. Turner, “Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay Territory,” Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1894), pp. 193 sq. 251. W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i. 331. 252. W. Ellis, op. cit. i. 406. 253. The Voyages of Captain James Cook round the World (London, 1809), vi. 152. 254. R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants, Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 104. 255. J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian's Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde (Berlin, 1888), i. 46. 256. J.
Джеймс Джордж Фрэзер
«Золотая ветвь: Исследование магии и религии (Том IX: Варрава)»
Kubary, “Die Bewohner der Mortlock-Inseln,” Mittheilungen der geographischen Gesellschaft in Hamburg, 1878-79, p. 36. 257. W. A. Reed, Negritos of Zambales (Manilla, 1904), p. 65 (Ethnological Survey Publications, vol. ii. Part i.). 258. Mgr. Couppé “En Nouvelle-Poméranie,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxiii. (1891) pp. 355 sq. 259. P. A. Kleintitschen, Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel (Hiltrup bei Münster, preface dated 1906), pp. 336 sq. Compare Joachim Graf Pfeil, Studien und Beobachtungen aus der Südsee (Brunswick, 1899), p. 159; id., in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxvii. (1898) pp. 183 sq. 260. R. Parkinson, Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 120, 121. 261. J. L. van Hasselt, “Die Papuastämme an der Geelvinkbai (Neu-guinea),” Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena, ix. (1891) p. 98. As to Mr. van Hasselt's twenty-five years' residence among these savages, see id., p. 22. 262. Stefan Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss's Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 414-416. 263. W. G. Lawes, “Notes on New Guinea and its Inhabitants,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 1880, p. 615. 264. J. G. F. Riedel, “Die Landschaft Dawan oder West-Timor,” Deutsche geographische Blätter, x. 278 sq. 265. G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers (Dordrecht, 1875), p. 148. 266. N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Het heidendom en de Islam in Bolaang Mongondou,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xi. (1867) p. 259. 267. R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, August, 1880, p. 83. 268. S. E. Harthoorn, “De Zending op Java en meer bepaald die van Malang,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, iv. (1860) pp. 116 sq. 269. C. A. L. M. Schwaner, Borneo, Beschrijving van het stroomgebied van den Barito (Amsterdam, 1853-54), i. 176. 270. J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane- en Bila-stroomgebied,” Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, iii. Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2 (Amsterdam, 1886), p. 287. 271. B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxviii. (1883) p. 508. The persons of the Batta Trinity are Bataraguru, Sori, and Balabulan. The most fundamental distinction between the persons of the Trinity appears to be that one of them is allowed to eat pork, while the others are not (ibid. p. 505). 272. M. Joustra, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xlvi. (1902) p. 412. 273. The Census of India, 1901, vol. iii. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, by Lieut.-Colonel Sir Richard C. Temple (Calcutta, 1903), p. 206. 274. Borie, “Notice sur les Mantras, tribu sauvage de la péninsule Malaise,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, x. (1860) p. 434. 275. S. Krascheninnikow, Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka (Lemgo, 1766), p. 215. 276. We may compare the instructive remarks made by Mr. W. E. Maxwell on the stratification of religious beliefs among the Malays (“The Folk-lore of the Malays,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 7, June, 1881, pp. 11 sq.). He says: “Two successive religious changes have taken place among them, and when we have succeeded in identifying the vestiges of Brahmanism which underly the external forms of the faith of Muhammed, long established in all Malay kingdoms, we are only half-way through our task. There yet remain the powerful influences of the still earlier indigenous faith to be noted and accounted for. Just as the Buddhists of Ceylon turn, in times of sickness and danger, not to the consolations offered by the creed of Buddha, but to the propitiation of the demons feared and reverenced by their early progenitors, and just as the Burmese and Talaings, though Buddhists, retain in full force the whole of the Nat superstition, so among the Malays, in spite of centuries which have passed since the establishment of an alien worship, the Muhammedan peasant may be found invoking the protection of Hindu gods against the spirits of evil with which his primitive faith has peopled all natural objects.” 277. H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda (Berlin, 1894), pp. 39 sq. 278. Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India (London, 1883), pp. 210 sq. 279. Monier Williams, op. cit. pp. 230 sq. The views here expressed by the late Professor Monier Williams are confirmed from personal knowledge by Mr. E. T. Atkinson, The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 840. 280. E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872), pp. 256, 257, 258. 281. Rev. S. Endle, The Kacharis (London, 1911), p. 33. 282. Bertram S. Carey and H. N. Tuck, The Chin Hills, i. (Rangoon, 1896) p. 196. 283. L. A. Waddell, “Demonolatry in Sikhim Lamaism,” The Indian Antiquary, xxiii. (1894) p. 197. 284. L. A. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet (London, 1895), p. 152. 285. Lt.-Colonel J. Shakespear, The Lushei Kuki Clans (London, 1912), pp. 61, 65 sq., 67. 286. Rev. S. Mateer, The Land of Charity (London, 1883), p. 207. 287. R. Percival, Account of the Island of Ceylon, Second Edition (London, 1805), pp. 211-213. 288. C. J. F. S. Forbes, British Burma (London, 1878), pp. 221 sq. 289. Shway Yoe, The Burman, his Life and Notions (London, 1882), i. 276 sq. 290. Shway Yoe, op. cit. i. 278. “To the Burman,” says A. Bastian, “the whole world is filled with nats. Mountains, rivers, waters, the earth, etc., have all their nat.” (Die Völker des östlichen Asien, ii. 497). 291. Mgr. Pallegoix, Description du royaume Thai ou Siam (Paris, 1854), i. 42. 292. C. Bock, Temples and Elephants (London, 1884), p. 198. 293. Mgr. Bruguière, in Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi, v. (1831) p. 128. 294. J. Deniker, The Races of Man (London, 1900), pp. 400 sqq. 295. A. Bourlet, “Les Thay,” Anthropos, ii. (1907) p. 619. 296. A. Bourlet, op. cit. p. 632. 297. J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China, v. (Leyden, 1907) p. 470. 298. J. J. M. de Groot, op. cit. vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 930-932. This sixth volume of Professor de Groot's great work is mainly devoted to an account of the ceaseless war waged by the Chinese people on demons or spectres (kwei). A more summary notice of this curious national delusion will be found in his work The Religion of the Chinese (New York, 1910), chapter ii., “The Struggle against Spectres,” pp. 33-61. 299. Mrs. Bishop (Isabella L. Bird), Korea and her Neighbours (London, 1898), ii. 227 sq., 229. I have taken the liberty of changing the writer's “daemon” and “daemoniacal” into “demon” and “demoniacal.” 300. C. von Dittmar, “Über die Koräken und die ihnen sehr nahe verwandten Tschuktschen,” Bulletin de la Classe Historico-philologique de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, xiii. (1856) coll. 123 sq. 301. W. Jochelson, The Koryak (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 28 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History). 302. L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, viii. (1905) pp. 460 sq. 303. M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (Boston, 1898), pp. 260 sqq.; id., Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens, i. (Giessen, 1905) pp. 278 sqq.; C. Fossey, La Magie Assyrienne (Paris, 1902), pp. 27-30, 34; E. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, Dritte Auflage, neu bearbeitet von H. Zimmern und H. Winckler (Berlin, 1902), pp. 458 sqq. 304. E. A. Wallis Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection (London, 1911), ii. 150. 305. E. W. Lane, Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians (Paisley and London, 1895), chap. x. pp. 231 sq. 306. C. B. Klunzinger, Bilder aus Oberägypten, der Wüste und dem Rothen Meere (Stuttgart, 1877), p. 382; compare ibid. pp. 374 sq. 307. Aristotle, De anima, i. 5. 17; Diogenes Laertius, i. 1. 27. 308. Porphyry, quoted by Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelii, iv. 23. 309. Elsewhere I have attempted to shew that a particular class of purifications—those observed by mourners—is intended to protect the living from the disembodied spirits of the dead (“On certain Burial Customs as illustrative of the Primitive Theory of the Soul,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xv. (1886) pp. 64 sqq.). 310. C. Meyer, Der Aberglaube des Mittelalters (Bâle, 1884), pp. 109-111, 191 sq. 311. E. Gerard, The Land beyond the Forest (Edinburgh and London, 1888), i. 328. The superstitions of the Roumanians of Transylvania have been collected by W. Schmidt in his tract Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Romänen Siebenbürgens (Hermannstadt, 1866). 312. Manuk Abeghian, Der armenische Volksglaube (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 31 sq. 313. Paul Reina, “Über die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, N.F., iv. (1858) p. 356. 314. R. Parkinson, Im Bismarck-Archipel (Leipsic, 1887), p. 142; id., Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee (Stuttgart, 1907), p. 119. 315. O. Opigez, “Aperçu général sur la Nouvelle-Calédonie,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), VII. Série, vii. (1886) p. 443. 316. S. Gason, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiv. (1895) p. 170. 317. Rev. James Macdonald, Religion and Myth (London, 1893), pp. 100-102. The writer, who describes the ceremony at first hand, remarks that “there is no periodic purging of devils, nor are more spirits than one expelled at a time.” He adds: “I have noticed frequently a connection between the quantity of grain that could be spared for making beer, and the frequency of gatherings for the purging of evils.” 318. [P. N. Wilken], “De godsdienst en godsdienstplegtigheden der Alfoeren in de Menahassa op het eiland Celebes,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, December 1849, pp. 392-394; id., “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, vii. (1863) pp. 149 sqq.; J. G. F. Riedel, “De Minahasa in 1825,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xviii. (1872) pp. 521 sq. Wilken's first and fuller account is reprinted in N. Graafland's De Minahassa (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 117-120. A German translation of Wilken's earlier article is printed in Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, N.F., x. (1861) pp. 43-61. 319. J. G. F. Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xvii. (1885) p. 82; G. A. Wilken, “Het Shamanisme bij de Volken van de Indischen Archipel,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indie, xxxvi. (1887) p. 484; id., Verspreide Geschriften (The Hague, 1912), iii. 383. When smallpox is raging, the Toradjas of Central Celebes abandon the village and live in the bush for seven days in order to make the spirit of smallpox believe that they are all dead. But it does not appear that they forcibly expel him from the village. See N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, De Bare'e-sprekende Toradja's van Midden-Celebes, i. (Batavia, 1912) p. 417. 320. C. M. Pleyte, “Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-eilanden,” Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) pp. 834 sq. A briefer account of the custom had previously been given by J. G. F. Riedel (De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, The Hague, 1886, p. 239). 321. J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias,” Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschapen, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) pp. 116 sq.; H. von Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 174 sq. Compare L. N. H. A. Chatelin, “Godsdienst en Bijgeloof der Niassers,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxvi. (1880) p. 139; E. Modigliani, Un Viaggio a Nías (Milan, 1890), pp. 195, 382. The Dyaks also drive the devil at the point of the sword from a house where there is sickness. See C. Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” Tijdschrift voor Neérlands Indië, 1846, dl. iii. p. 149. 322. Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 486-488. 323. Herodotus, i. 172. 324. G. C. Wheeler, “Sketch of the Totemism and Religion of the People of the Islands in the Bougainville Straits (Western Solomon Islands),” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, xv. (1912) pp. 49, 51 sq. 325. C. J. F. S. Forbes, British Burma (London, 1878), p. 233; Shway Yoe, The Burman, his Life and Notions (London, 1882), i. 282, ii. 105 sqq.; A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, ii. 98; Max and Bertha Ferrars, Burma (London, 1900), p. 128. 326. (Sir) J. George Scott and J. P. Hardiman, Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States, Part ii. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1901) p. 440. 327. T. H. Lewin, Wild Tribes of South-Eastern India (London, 1870), p. 226. 328. J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China, vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 981 sqq.; id., The Religion of the Chinese (New York, 1910), pp. 40 sqq. 329. This description is taken from a newspaper-cutting, which was sent to me from the west of Scotland in October 1890, but without the name or date of the paper. The account, which is headed “Exorcism of the Pest Demon in Japan,” purports to be derived from a series of notes on medical customs of the Japanese, which were contributed by Dr. C. H. H. Hall, of the U.S. Navy, to the Sei-I Kwai Medical Journal. Compare Lafcadio Hearn, Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan (London, 1894), i. 147. 330. Masanao Koike, “Zwei Jahren in Korea,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, iv. (1891) p. 10; Mrs. Bishop, Korea and her Neighbours (London, 1898), ii. 240. 331. Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition (Paris, 1780-1783), xvi. 206. It will be noticed that in this and the preceding case the principle of expulsion is applied for the benefit of an individual, not of a whole community. Yet the method of procedure in both is so similar to that adopted in the cases under consideration that I have allowed myself to cite them. 332. G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in Westafrika,” Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, xii. (1877) pp. 414 sq. 333. H. Hecquard, Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West-Afrika (Leipsic, 1854), p. 43. 334. Dr. A. Plehn, “Beobachtungen in Kamerun, über die Anschauungen und Gebräuche einiger Negerstämme,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxxvi. (1904) pp. 717 sq. 335. Ph. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl (Berlin, 1893), p. 177. 336. F. Gabriel Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, pp. 279 sqq. (195 sq. of the reprint, Paris, Libraire Tross, 1865). Compare Relations des Jésuites, 1639, pp. 88-92 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858), from which it appears that each man demanded the subject of his dream in the form of a riddle, which the hearers tried to solve. The custom of asking riddles at certain seasons or on certain special occasions is curious and has not yet, so far as I know, been explained. Perhaps enigmas were originally circumlocutions adopted at times when for certain reasons the speaker was forbidden the use of direct terms. They appear to be especially employed in the neighbourhood of a dead body. Thus in Bolang Mongondo (Celebes) riddles may never be asked except when there is a corpse in the village. See N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaäng Mongondou,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xi. (1867) p. 357. In the Aru archipelago, while a corpse is uncoffined, the watchers propound riddles to each other, or rather they think of things which the others have to guess. See J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, pp. 267 sq. In Brittany after a burial, when the rest have gone to partake of the funeral banquet, old men remain behind in the graveyard, and having seated themselves on mallows, ask each other riddles. See A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 199. Among the Akamba of British East Africa boys and girls at circumcision have to interpret certain pictographs cut on sticks: these pictographs are called “riddles.” See C. W. Hobley, Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African Tribes (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 71 sq. In Vedic times the priests proposed enigmas to each other at the great sacrifice of a horse. See The Satapatha Brahmana, translated by J. Eggeling, Part v. (Oxford, 1900), pp. 314-316 (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliv.); H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda (Berlin, 1894), p. 475. Compare O. Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 647 sq. Among Turkish tribes of Central Asia girls publicly propound riddles to their wooers, who are punished if they cannot read them. See H. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk (Leipsic, 1885), pp. 232 sq. Among the Alfoors of Central Celebes riddles may only be asked during the season when the fields are being tilled and the crops are growing. People meeting together at this time occupy themselves with asking riddles and telling stories. As soon as some one has found the answer to a riddle, they all cry out, “Make our rice to grow, make fat ears to grow both in the valleys and on the heights.” But during the months which elapse between harvest and the preparation of new land for tillage the propounding of enigmas is strictly forbidden.
The writer who reports the custom conjectures that the cry “Make our rice to grow” is addressed to the souls of the ancestors. See A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xxxix. (1895) pp. 142 sq. Amongst the Toboongkoo of Central Celebes riddles are propounded at harvest and by watchers over a corpse. See A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xliv. (1900) pp. 223, 228. 337. A. d'Orbigny, Voyage dans l'Amérique Méridionale, ii. (Paris and Strasburg, 1839-1843) p. 190. 338. Pedro Lozano, Description Chorographica del Terreno, Rios, Arboles, y Animales de las dilatadissimas Provincias del Gran Chaco, Gualamba, etc. (Cordova, 1733) p. 100. 339. H. H. Bancroft, Natives Races of the Pacific States (London, 1875-1876), i. 589 note 259, quoting Arlegui, Chrón. de Zacatecas, pp. 152-3, 182. 340. Bertram S. Carey and H. N. Tuck, The Chin Hills, i. (Rangoon, 1896) p. 198. 341. Rev. W. Ridley, in J. D. Lang's Queensland (London, 1861), p. 441. Compare Rev. W. Ridley, Kamilaroi (Sydney, 1875), p. 149. 342. Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska (Washington, 1885), pp. 42 sq. It is said that in Thule, where the sun disappeared below the horizon for forty days every winter, the greatest festival of the year was held when the luminary reappeared. “It seems to me,” says Procopius, who records the fact, “that though the same thing happens every year, these islanders are very much afraid lest the sun should fail them altogether.” See Procopius, De bello Gothico, ii. 15. 343. Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo,” Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada for 1887, vol. v. (Montreal, 1888) sect. ii. 36 sq.; id., “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), pp. 603 sq. Elsewhere, however, the writer mentions a different explanation of the custom of harpooning Sedna. He says: “Sedna feels kindly towards the people if they have succeeded in cutting her. If there is no blood on the knife, it is an ill omen. As to the reason why Sedna must be cut, the people say that it is an old custom, and that it makes her feel better, that it is the same as giving a thirsty person drink.” See Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xv. (New York, 1901) p. 139. However, this explanation may well be an afterthought devised to throw light on an old custom of which the original meaning had been forgotten. 344. W. Jochelson, The Koryak (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 88 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vi., Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History). 345. Above, p. 121. 346. Relations des Jésuites, 1656, pp. 26-28 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858); J. F. Lafitau, Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains (Paris, 1724), i. 367-369; Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, vi. 82 sqq.; Timothy Dwight, Travels in New England and New York (London, 1823), iv. 201 sq.; L. H. Morgan, League of the Iroquois (Rochester, 1851), pp. 207 sqq.; Mrs. E. A. Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1883), pp. 112 sqq.; Horatio Hale, “Iroquois Sacrifice of the White Dog,” American Antiquarian, vii. (1885) pp. 7 sqq.; W. M. Beauchamp, “Iroquois White Dog Feast,” ibid. pp. 235 sqq. “They had one day in the year which might be called the Festival of Fools; for in fact they pretended to be mad, rushing from hut to hut, so that if they ill-treated any one or carried off anything, they would say next day, ‘I was mad; I had not my senses about me.’ And the others would accept this explanation and exact no vengeance” (L. Hennepin, Description de la Louisiane, Paris, 1683, pp. 71 sq.). 347. J. H. Payne, quoted in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, by W. Bartram, 1789, with prefatory and supplementary notes by E. G. Squier,” Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. iii. Part i. (1853) p. 78. 348. C. Gay, “Fragment d'un voyage dans le Chili et au Cusco patrie des anciens Incas,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), ii. Série, xix. (1843) pp. 29 sq. 349. Garcilasso de la Vega, Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, translated by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871), Part i. bk. vii. ch. 6, vol. ii. pp. 228 sqq.; Molina, “Fables and Rites of the Yncas,” in Rites and Laws of the Yncas (Hakluyt Society, 1873), pp. 20 sqq.; J. de Acosta, History of the Indies, bk. v. ch. 28, vol. ii. pp. 375 sq. (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). The accounts of Garcilasso and Molina are somewhat discrepant, but this may be explained by the statement of the latter that “in one year they added, and in another they reduced the number of ceremonies, according to circumstances.” Molina places the festival in August, Garcilasso and Acosta in September. According to Garcilasso there were only four runners in Cuzco; according to Molina there were four hundred. Acosta's account is very brief. In the description given in the text features have been borrowed from all three accounts, where these seemed consistent with each other. 350. W. Bosman, “Description of the Coast of Guinea,” in J. Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, xvi. (London, 1814) p. 402; Pierre Bouche, La Côte des Esclaves (Paris, 1885), p. 395. 351. Rev. J. Leighton Wilson, Western Africa (London, 1856), p. 217. 352. Narrative of Captain James Fawckner's Travels on the Coast of Benin, West Africa (London, 1837), pp. 102 sq. 353. “Extracts from Diary of the late Rev. John Martin, Wesleyan Missionary in West Africa, 1843-1848,” Man, xii. (1912) pp. 138 sq. Compare Major A. J. N. Tremearne, The Tailed Head-hunters of Nigeria (London, 1912), pp. 202 sq. 354. S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger (London, 1859), p. 320. 355. Mansfield Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia, Second Edition (London, 1868), pp. 285 sq. 356. George Brown, D.D., Melanesians and Polynesian (London, 1910), pp. 413 sq. 357. As to the ceremony of eating the new yams, see Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 58 sqq. 358. J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906), pp. 305-307. At Kotedougou a French officer saw a number of disguised men called dou dancing and performing various antics about the houses, under the trees, and in the fields. Hemp and palm leaves were sewn on their garments and they wore caps of hemp surmounted by a crest of red-ochred wood, sometimes by a wooden beak of a bird. He gathered that the ceremony takes place at the beginning of winter, and he thought that the processions “are perhaps intended to drive away the evil spirits at the season of tillage or perhaps also to procure rain.” See Le Capitaine Binger, Du Niger au Golfe de Guinée par le pays de Kong et le Mossi (Paris, 1892), pp. 378-380. 359. E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872), pp. 196 sq. We have seen that among the Pondos of South Africa the harvest festival of first-fruits is in like manner a period of licence and debauchery. See Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 66 sq. 360. Major J. Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh (Calcutta, 1880), p. 103. 361. W. Macpherson, Memorials of Service in India from the Correspondence of the late Major S. C. Macpherson (London, 1865), pp. 357 sq. Possibly this case belongs more strictly to the class of mediate expulsions, the devils being driven out upon the car. Perhaps, however, the car with its contents is regarded rather as a bribe to induce them to go than as a vehicle in which they are actually carted away. Anyhow it is convenient to take this case along with those other expulsions of demons which are the accompaniment of an agricultural festival. 362. H. C. Streatfield, “Ranchi,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) p. 36. 363. Le Tour du Monde, iii. (Paris, 1897) pp. 227 sq., quoting Aux sources de l'Irraouaddi, d'Hanoï à Calcutta par terre, par M. E. Roux, Troisième Partie. 364. R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N.S., viii. (1879) pp. 58-60. Van Eck's account is reprinted in J. Jacobs's Eenigen tijd onder de Baliërs (Batavia, 1883), pp. 190 sqq. According to another writer, each village may choose its own day for expelling the devils, but the ceremony must always be performed at the new moon. A necessary preliminary is to mark exactly the boundaries of the village territory, and this is done by stretching the leaves of a certain palm across the roads at the boundaries. See F. A. Liefrinck, “Bijdrage tot de kennis van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 246 sq. As to the “dark moon” it is to be observed that some eastern nations, particularly the Hindoos and the Burmese, divide the monthly cycle of the moon into two parts, which they call the light moon and the dark moon respectively. The light moon is the first half of the month, when the luminary is waxing; the dark moon is the second half of the month, when the luminary is waning. See Francis Buchanan, “On the Religion and Literature of the Burmas,” Asiatick Researches, vi. (London, 1801) p. 171. The Balinese have no doubt derived the distinction, like much else, from the Hindoos. 365. J. Anderson, Mandalay to Momien (London, 1876), p. 308. 366. United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology, by H. Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), pp. 67 sq.; Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, New Edition (New York, 1851), iii. 90 sq., 342. According to the latter writer, the sea-slug was eaten by the men alone, who lived during the four days in the temple, while the women and boys remained shut up in their houses. As to the annual appearance and catch of the sea-slug in the seas of Fiji, see further B. Seeman, Viti, an Account of a Government Mission to the Vitian or Fijian Islands in the Years 1860-1862 (Cambridge, 1862), pp. 59-61; Basil Thomson, The Fijians (London, 1908), pp. 324-327. A somewhat different account of the appearance of the slug (Palolo veridis) in the Samoan Sea is given from personal observation by Dr. George Brown. He says: “This annelid, as far as I can remember, is about 8 or 12 inches long, and somewhat thicker than ordinary piping-cord. It is found only on two mornings in the year, and the time when it will appear and disappear can be accurately predicted. As a general rule only a few palolo are found on the first day, though occasionally the large quantity may appear first; but, as a rule, the large quantity appears on the second morning. And it is only found on these mornings for a very limited period, viz. from early dawn to about seven o'clock, i.e. for about two hours. It then disappears until the following year, except in some rare instances, when it is found for the same limited period in the following month after its first appearance. I kept records of the time, and of the state of the moon, for some years, with the following result: that it always appeared on two out of the following three days, viz. the day before, the day of, and the day after the last quarter of the October moon.” See George Brown, D.D., Melanesians and Polynesians (London, 1910), pp. 135 sq. The slug is also caught in the sea off Samoa, according to one account, at intervals of six months. One of its appearances takes place on the eighth day after the new moon of October. So regular are the appearances of the creature that the Samoans reckon their time by them. See E. Boisse, “Les îles Samoa, Nukunono, Fakaafo, Wallis et Hoorn,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), vi. Série, x. (1875) pp. 430 sq. In antiquity every year vast shoals of a small fish used to ascend the river Olynthiac from the lake of Bolbe in Macedonia, and all the people of the neighbourhood caught and salted great store of them. They thought that the fish were sent to them by Bolbe, the mother of Olynthus, and they noted it as a curious fact that the fish never swam higher up than the tomb of Olynthus, which stood on the bank of the river Olynthiac. The shoals always made their appearance in the months of Anthesterion and Elaphebolion, and as the people of Apollonia (a city on the bank of the lake) celebrated their festival of the dead at that season, formerly in the month of Elaphebolion, but afterwards in the month of Anthesterion, they imagined that the fish came at that time on purpose. See Athenaeus, viii. 11, p. 334 f. 367. M. J. Erdweg, “Die Bewohner der Insel Tumleo Berlinhafen, Deutsch-New-Guinea,” Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xxxii. (1902) pp. 329 sq. 368. A. Humbert, Le Japon illustré (Paris, 1870), ii. 326. 369. A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, v. (Jena, 1869) p. 367. 370. W. G. Aston, Shinto (London, 1905), p. 309. 371. Lafcadio Hearn, Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan (London, 1894), ii. 498 sq. The writer agrees with Mr. Aston as to the formula of exorcism—“Oni wa soto! fuku wa uchi”, “Devils out! Good fortune in!” 372. Eitel, “Les Hak-ka,” L'Anthropologie, iv. (1893) pp. 175 sq. 373. Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. pp. 146 sq., § 792 (June, 1885); D. C. J. Ibbetson, Outlines of Panjab Ethnography (Calcutta, 1883), p. 119; W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), ii. 188, 295 sq. 374. John Richardson, Dictionary of Persian, Arabic, and English, New Edition (London, 1829), p. liii. 375. J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China, vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 977 sq. 376. J. J. M. de Groot, op. cit. vi. 978. 377. J. J. M. de Groot, op. cit. vi. 979. 378. J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China, vi. 944 sqq.; id., The Religion of China (New York, 1910), pp. 38 sq.; J. H. Gray, China (London, 1878), i. 251 sq. 379. W. Woodville Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and Superstitions of Korea,” The American Anthropologist, iv. (1891) p. 185. 380. S. Baron, “Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen,” in J. Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, ix. (London, 1811) pp. 673, 695 sq.; compare Richard, “History of Tonquin,” ibid. p. 746. The account of the ceremony by Tavernier (whom Baron criticises very unfavourably) is somewhat different. According to him, the expulsion of wicked souls at the New Year is combined with sacrifice to the honoured dead. “At the beginning of every year they have a great solemnity in honour of the dead, who were in their lives renowned for their noble actions and valour, reckoning rebels among them. They set up several altars, some for sacrifices, others for the names of the persons they design to honour; and the king, princes, and mandarins are present at them, and make three profound reverences to the altars when the sacrifices are finished; but the king shoots five times against the altars where the rebels' names are; then the great guns are let off, and the soldiers give vollies of small shot, to put the souls to flight. The altars and papers made use of at the sacrifices are burnt, and the bonzes and sages go to eat the meat made use of at the sacrifice” (Tavernier, in John Harris's Collection of Voyages and Travels, vol. i. (London, 1744) p. 823). The translation is somewhat abridged. For the French original, see J. B. Tavernier, Voyages en Turquie, en Perse, et aux Indes (The Hague, 1718), iii. 230 sq. 381. É. Aymonier, Notice sur le Cambodge (Paris, 1875), p. 62. 382. A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, iii. (Jena, 1867) pp. 237, 298, 314, 529 sq.; Mgr. Pallegoix, Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam (Paris, 1854), i. 252. Bastian (p. 314), with whom Pallegoix seems to agree, distinctly states that the expulsion takes place on the last day of the year. Yet both say that it occurs in the fourth month of the year. According to Pallegoix (i. 253) the Siamese year is composed of twelve lunar months, and the first month usually begins in December. Hence the expulsion of devils would commonly take place in March, as in Cambodia. In Laos the year begins in the fifth month and it ends in the fifth month of the following year. See Lieutenant-Colonel Tournier, Notice sur le Laos Français (Hanoi, 1900), p. 187. According to Professor E. Seler the festival of Toxcatl, celebrated in the fifth month, was the old Mexican festival of the New Year. See E. Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 153, 166 sq. (Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde, vi. Heft 2/4). Hence it appears that in some calendars the year is not reckoned to begin with the first month. 383. Ernest Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe (Westminster, 1898), pp. 135 sq. 384. “Lettre de Mgr. Bruguière, évêque de Capse, à M. Bousquet, vicaire-général d'Aire,” Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi, v. (Paris and Lyons, 1831) p. 188. As to the temporary king of Siam, his privileges and the ceremony of ploughing which he performs, see The Dying God, pp. 149-151. 385. Charlevoix, Histoire et description generale du Japon (Paris, 1736), i. 128 sq.; C. P. Thunberg, Voyages au Japon (Paris, 1796), iv. 18-20; A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, v. (Jena, 1869) p. 364; Beaufort, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xv. (1886) p. 102; A. Morgan, in Journal of American Folk-lore, x. (1897) pp. 244 sq.; Lafcadio Hearn, Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan (London, 1894), i. 106-110, ii. 504 sq. The custom of welcoming the souls of the dead back to their old homes once a year has been observed in many lands.