In any case, the production would be proportioned only to the borrowed seed, cattle, etc. (Sismondi, Richesses commerciale, 1803, I, p. 61.)290.That the Athenians left everything in the lurch to oppose Xerxes, much more readily than under Pericles, even, the flat country of Attica. Büchsenschütz (Besitz und Erwerb im griech. Alterthum, 589) explains by the fact that in the interval between the two periods, fixed capital increased largely. In rude ages under the appellation of a community or nation was understood a number of men; and the state, while its members remained, was accounted entire. With polished and mercantile states, the case is sometimes reverted. The nation is a territory cultivated and improved by its owners; destroy the possession even while the master remains, the state is undone. Ferguson, Hist. of civil Society, V, 4; v. Mangoldt, Volkswirthschaftslehre, 159. Fixed capital is not so sure of being completely used up as circulating. On this point see Schäffle, N. Œk., 53.291.If the aggregate productive activity of man be designated by the word labor (just as everything produced on a piece of land is inaccurately called its product), then all capital may be considered as the unconsumed result of labor. The recent socialistic theory that considers capital as the wages which have been earned but not paid, is a gross misconception of this truth. This is the origin only of the capital of oppressors and deceivers, and of theirs only in part. See infra, § 189.292.“While we are clothed in our winter garments, the spring stuffs are already in the shops of retail dealers; the light material of next summer's wear is already manufacturing, and the wool for our next winter's clothing spun.” Think of the study in advance which the physician must have gone through, whom we summon to us at a moment's notice! Menger, Grundsätze, I, § 33. seq.293.Thus in dangerous callings, as for instance, among soldiers and sailors, there is very little saving. The same may be said of times of plague. See J. Rae, New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy, 1834.294.That we keep our property under lock and key, while it was customary in Plato's time to seal it up, is in itself a great advance. See Becker, Charicles, I, 202 seq. Earlier yet, artificial knots were used. Homer, Odyss. VII, 443.295.Compare Hearne, Reise, nach Prinzwalesfort, 43, 58, 119. Barrow von Sprengel, 282. Humboldt, Relation historique, II, 245. Ausland, 1844, No. 359; 1845, No. 84. Stein-Wappüus, Handbuch der Geographie, I, 310. For proof that the clergy by preaching self denial contributed largely to the creation of capital in the earlier part of medieval history, see Guórard, Polyptiques d'Irminon Préf., 13.296.On the inevitableness of slavery, where capital is needed, and no one cares to save, see de Metz Noblet, Phénomènes économiques, I, 306.297.The origination of capital by “social connexions” (gesellschaftliche Zusammenhänge) Lassalle (Bastiat-Schultze, 92, 98) exaggerates into the absurdity that no capital was ever saved. This is in part related to his confounding land with capital (103 seq.). On the other hand, P. L. (v. Lilienfeld), Gedanken über die Staatswissenschaft der Zukunft (1873), distinguishes between the external and internal creation of capital in human society; the latter based on the condition of every organic being, by virtue of which the present is generated by the past, and generates the future. The intercellular substance of plants, the honey-comb of bees, and the blood in the animal body, correspond to the capital of a nation.298.Hermann, St. Untersuchungen, 289 ff.; List, System der politischen Œkonomie, I, 325 ff. Thus, for instance, capitalization among a race of hunters may be continued longest by the creation of herds; that of a race of shepherds by the building of houses, and by land-improvements; that of an agricultural people by the establishment of trades, artificial roads, etc. As to how, in general the accumulation of goods to any great extent, supposes exchange, and as to how, first of all, with exchange through the existence of a superabundance wealth may originate, see Hermann, loc. cit., II, Aufl., 25 ff.299.The annual increase of the capital of France during the later years of Louis Philippe's reign, was estimated at from 200 to 300 million of francs; during the best years of Napoleon III's reign, at 600 million. Journal des Econ., Nov., 1861, 170. The capital of the British empire, judging from the statistics of the income tax, increased from 1843 to 1853, in Great Britain alone, at least £42,000,000 yearly; from 1854 to 1860, in the whole empire, at least £114,000,000; and in 1863 alone by £130,000,000. London Statis. Journal, 1864, 118 ff. A war carried on on English soil would doubtless be more destructive of capital than one waged in Russia; but Russia would recover from one like that of 1854-55 with much greater difficulty because of the small tendency of its people to amass capital. In countries in which the middle classes preponderate, the influence of the amassing of capital on foreign politics is one that favors peace. In despotic or democratic countries, it may as readily favor war.300.The “absolute formation” of capital above described is, of course, the only one in the general economy of mankind. In the economy of individuals, we frequently meet with another which is only “relative,” as when the increase of one's resources is attended by as great or even greater decrease of another's. This is the case, for instance, where privileges or monopolies are granted. The same phenomenon is found also in the intercourse of economies of different nations. Supra, § 64.301.Thus Cicero, De Off., II, 3, 4. Nature may indeed produce mere value in use without the coöperation of labor, in the narrow sense of the word; as, for instance, a forest which protects a district from avalanches etc. But “everything which has been transformed into goods tends constantly to return to its natural state, and to withdraw itself from the life of goods.” Stein, Lehrbuch.302.Compare List, System der Polit. Œkon. But see also the very fine discussion of J. S. Mill, Principles, IV, ch. VI, 2, on the dreariness of nature, when taken exclusive possession of by man; “with every rood of land brought into cultivation which is capable of growing food for human beings; every flowery waste or natural pasture plowed up; all quadrupeds or birds which are not domesticated for man's use, exterminated as his rivals for food; every hedgerow or superfluous tree rooted out, and scarcely a place left where a wild shrub or flower could grow, without being eradicated as a weed, in the name of improved agriculture.”303.In Paris, in 1820, the necessary tools of a rag-gatherer cost 6-¼ francs. Garnier, Elements d'Econ.-polit., 43.304.It is not to be overlooked that all labor expended for a distant end also falls under the head of capital. See Droz, Economie politique, 1829, I, 6.305.For a good exposition as to how England has need of more agricultural products, the East Indies of more capital, and the West Indies of more labor, see Fawcett, Manual of P. E., 110.306.It is a very significant fact, that, at present, in certain European countries, in Germany for instance, the laborer is called a taker, and the capitalist a giver of work. The expressions employed by Canard, Say and Hermann, teach a similar lesson.307.Schäffle, Kapitalismus und Socialismus, 124 seq.308.It is evident, that, absolutely considered, the predominating factor of an earlier period may continue to increase during the following: and, as a rule, it does continue to increase.309.I need cite only the instance of the slaves, who called out the hours, thus performing the functions of a clock: Martial, VIII. 67; Juvenal, X. 216; Petron. 26; of the turning of water wheels, in Egypt and Babylon, by human hands. Strabo, XVI. 738, XVII., 807. Among the ancients, it required one shepherd, and shepherd boys besides, to take care of twenty sheep. (Geopon. XVIII, 1.) In highly cultivated regions, the number ran up to fifty. (Demosth., adv. Euerg. et Mnes., 1155.) It seldom passed eighty (Varro, De re rust., II. 10, 10. 2, 20), or one hundred (Cato, R.R. c. 10); while, recently, five men are sufficient to take care of eighteen hundred sheep. See Roscher's discourse on the relation of Political Economy to classical antiquity, in the reports of the Royal Saxon Science Association, May, 1849. Also D. Hume, Discourses, No. 10.310.The productive power of each of the factors of production has been over-estimated by some schools. After Gratian (c. i, C. XIII. qu. i), had clearly recognized the necessary coöperation of the three elements, there was in the one-sidedness with which the Reformers emphasized God's blessing as the only source of wealth, a great over-estimation of the factor nature. The Mercantile System over-estimated the factor capital, in one of its most obvious component parts, money. In later times again: “La terre est la source ou la matière d'où l'on tire la ichesse; le travail de l'homme est la forme qui la produit. Tous les hommes d'un état subsistent et s'enrichissent aux dépens des propriétaires des terres.” (Cantillon, Sur la Nature du Commerce, 1755, I. 33, 55.) La terre est l'unique source des richesses. (Quesnay, Maximes générales de Gouvernement, 1758, ch. 3.) In another place, indeed, the same writer says: les revenus sont le produit des terres et des hommes (Grains, p. 276, Daire), and Mirabeau frequently laid stress on the necessary coöperation of labor and capital. (Landwirthschaftsphilosophie, translation by Wichmann, I, 5.) Turgot, Sur la Formation et Distribution des Richesses, § 7. For an excellent refutation of this “Physiocratic” one-sidedness, which, if all men are endowed by nature with equal rights, leads to socialism, see Canard, Principes, 6. According to Gioja, N. Prospetto, I. 35, the part played by labor, in the production of Parmesan cheese, is a thousand times as great as that played by the soil; and in the production of a Dutch tulip, a hundred thousand times as great. The English are wont, similarly, to over-estimate the relative power of labor. (Ponocratie, after Ancillon, Essais philosophiques, 1817, II. 327.) “Commerce and trade first spring from the labour of men.” (North, Discourses upon Trade, 112.) Thus, Locke (1690), Of Civil Government, II, 5, 40 ff., is of opinion, that, at least 9/10 of the value of the products of the soil, useful to man, are to be ascribed to labor, and, in the case of most, even 99/100. And so, Berkeley (1735), Querist, No. 38 seq. This view is advocated in its boldest form,—a thing unusual in the case of the independent disciples of a great master—by McCulloch, Principles, II, ch. i, that it is to labor, and to labor alone, that man owes everything that possesses any value in exchange. Similarly, J. Mill, Elements (1824), III, 2. The consequences which socialism might draw from these premises are self-evident. Karl Marx's whole system, for instance, rests, without any attempt at demonstration, on the assumption that the Ricardo school is right. Much more moderate views are met with earlier. Thus, Hobbes, De Cive, XIII, 14, and Leviath., 24 (1642 and 1651), calls labor et parsimonia necessary sources of wealth; proventus terræ et aquæ useful ones; and Petty, On Taxes (1679), 47, says: “Labour is the father and active principle of wealth, as lands are the mother. Land and labour together are the sources of all wealth; without a competency of lands there would be no subsistence, and but a very poor one without labour.” Harris, Upon Money and Coins, 1757, P.I. Adam Smith, also, in spite of the well known passage at the beginning of his work, very frequently lays stress on “the annual produce of land and labour.” (See the passages collected in Leser, Begriff des Reichthums bei A.S., 97.) According to Leibniz, regionis potentia consistit in terra, rebus, hominibus. (ed. Dutens, IV. 2, 531.) Ricardo's school is wont to bring capital under the head of labor, as saved-up labor. This is about as correct as to say, that all that a grown man does, his parents had done. (Umpfenbach, Nat. Œk., 64.) There is only one way in which labor, and even then the expression is not exactly correct, can be looked upon as the only factor in production; and that is to presuppose the forces of nature as matters of course (als sich von selbst verstehend), and to call the aggregate use made of them by the human mind, labor. Or we might say with old Epicharmos, that the gods sell all goods for labor. (Xenoph., Memor. II. 1.) Moreover, even in purely intellectual productions, in poetical productions for instance, nature, labor and experience, the culture inherited from former ages (a kind of intellectual capital) uniformly coöperate. But how almost completely valueless in literature are all entirely pure (empty!) productions of the fancy!311.Before the predominance of the Mercantile System, Montchrétien very cleverly called all trades: parcelles et fragments de cette sagesse divine que Dieu nous communique par le moyen de la raisen. By means of the three estates; labourers, artisans, merchands, tout état est nourri; par eux tout profit se fait. L'utilité règle les rangs des arts. (Traité, 12, 45, 66.) The teaching of P. Gregorius Tolosanos (ob. 1597) on the different classes of society and the different callings of men, is still more in keeping with the present doctrine of production; only, in the moralizing tone of the time, he speaks rather of their dignity than of their influence in creating wealth: De Rep. I, 195. See, also, the earlier views of Franc. Patricius (ob. 1494), De Rep. I, 4, 7, 8.312.Compare A. Serra, Breve Trattato delle Cause che possono far abbondare i Regni d'Oro d'Argento, 1613. Th. Mun, England's Treasure by foreign Trade, 1664. Ch. King, British Merchant or Commerce Preserved, 1721. But, particularly, A.C. Leib, Von Verbesserung Land und Leuten etc. (1708), who, from the point of view of the Mercantile System, draws a very clear distinction between the productive and unproductive classes. See, also, infra, § 116. First thoroughly refuted by W. Petty, Political Anatomy of Ireland, 67, 82. Quantulumcunque concerning Money (1682). D. North, Discourses upon trade (1691). See Roscher's Geschichte der englischen Volkswirthschaftslehre, 77, 88, 138. And later, especially, Ad. Smith, W. of N. IV., ch. 1 ff. Adam Smith's doctrine of productive and unproductive labor is to be found already, in this period, in Petty, Several Essays, 127 ff. Political Anatomy, 185 ff; also, in the anonymous work, A Discourse of Trade, Coyn and Paper Credit, London (1697), 44, 159.313.Quesnay, Dialogue sur les Travaux des Artisans, 210 ff.; 289 éd. Daire; Turgot, Sur la Formation etc., § 8; Dupont, Correspondence avec J.B. Say, 400, éd. Daire. B. Franklin, Letter to Dr. Evans (1768), and Positions Concerning National Wealth (1769), Works ed. Sparks, VII and II. Similarly even Aristotle, Oec., I, 2, says, that commerce, wage-labor and war win from men, with or without their will; but that only agriculture obtains booty from nature. And so Cicero says of merchants: nihil proficiunt, nisi admodum mentiantur. De Off., I, 42. The same view seems to have prevailed during the middle ages. See Thom. Aquin., De Rebus publicis, II, 3, 5 seq. Luther entertained a like notion (Vom Kaufhandel und Wucher, 1524). He prefers agriculture to the trades. See the Irmischer edition of his works, XXII, 284; XXXVI, 172; LXI, 352. Calvin considered commerce both useful and honorable; so that ex ipsius mercatoris diligentia atque industria, its profit may be greater than that of agriculture. (Opp. ed. Amstelod, 1664, IX, 223.) Asgill, Several Assertions proved in order to create another Species of Money than Gold (1691): “what we call commodities is nothing but land severed from the soil; man deals in nothing but earth.” Concerning Cantillon, compare § 47, note 4. How violent an innovation the Physiocratic theory was in its time may be inferred from what Zincke writes in the Leipzig Sammlungen, X, 551 ff. (1753), p. 20, XIII, 861.314.Quesnay, l. c., 189, does not ignore that many workmen earn more than the cost of their necessary subsistence; but he claimed that this was a result of a natural or legal monopoly of the same. The dearer labor was, the more productive it seemed. Per contra, see Dohm on the Physiocratic system, in the Deutsch. Museum, 1778, II, 313 ff.315.Gournay (compare Turgot, Eloge de G., in Guillaumin's edition, I, 266, 271 ff.), as well as Raynal, Histoire des Indes, vol. X, Livre 19, spite of the similarity of their and Quesnay's views, acknowledged on this account, the productiveness of industry. For some remarkable examples illustrative of how it may increase the value in exchange of raw material, see the anonymous work, Paying Old Debts without New Taxes, London, 1723. See also Algarotti (ob. 1794), 318, in Custodi, Economisti classici italiani, Parte moderna, I. Thus a cwt. of coarse cast iron is converted, in a Berlin manufactory, into 88,440 shirt buttons worth 6-⅔ silver groschens each. Hence the value is raised from 1-2 thalers to 19,653 thalers. The increase of the value in use by industrial labor is self-evident.316.Quesnay, Dialogue sur le Commerce.317.Recognized very early by Ad. Contzen, Politicorum, Lib. VIII, C. 10 (1629).318.This did not escape the notice of Frederick II. Von Raumer, Hohenstaufen, III, 535.319.Condillac acknowledges the productive power both of industry and of commerce; and that the service rendered by the state is at least economically indispensable. (Le Commerce et le Gouvernment, 1776, I, 6, 7, 10.) Beccaria, Economia pubblica (1769 ff.), IV, 4, 24. Boisguillebert (ob.
Вильгельм Рошер
«Принципы политической экономии, том 1»
1714), Sur la Nature des Richesses, illustrated the utility of commerce by the picture of a number of men bound to pillars, one hundred steps apart, one with a superabundance of food but naked, a second with a superabundance of fuel, a third with a superabundance of clothing etc.; all of whom perish, because unable to exchange their respective surpluses with one another. According to Lotz, Revision, I, 217, “buying dear,” apart from real fraud, means only a decrease of possible gain.320.Verri, Meditazioni, XXIV, instead of calling the merchant productive, calls him a mediator between producers and consumers. It would be just as reasonable to call the shoemaker a mediator between the production and consumption of leather; or the cloth merchant, who cuts the material from the piece, an assistant preparatory to the tailor. The labor of commerce is especially like that of the fisherman or the turf digger, because they produce only in so far as they transfer goods from inaccessible to accessible places. See, however, Rau, Lehrbuch, I, § 103. See the demonstration of the productive power of commerce in general, as well as of what is, by way of preference, called industry, in Ad. Smith, W. of N., IV, ch. 9. A much more fundamental refutation of the Physiocratic Principle is to be found in Jacob, N. Œk., 204 ff.321.In 1843, about 55,000 tons of ice were shipped from Boston. Less than 25 cents per ton was paid for the ice in the first instance. When packed on board ship, it was worth $2.55 per ton. The ultimate sale brought $3,575,000. Ausland, 1844, No. 278. The ancients were acquainted with a similar production of ice, the value in exchange of which might be almost entirely reduced to the labor of commerce. See Xenoph., Memor., II, I, 30; Athen. III 97: Proverbs of Solomon, 25, 13.322.W. of N., ch. 3. See, however, Garnier's French translation of Ad. Smith, Préf. p. IX and V, note 20. Similarly, Malthus, Principles, ch. 1, Lect. 21. Definitions, ch. 7, 10.323.Bacon had already said of the nobility, clergy and literateurs: sorti reipublicæ nihil addunt (Serm., 15, 29); in opposition to which, Hobbes justly remarks, that even human labor may, like other things, be exchanged against goods of all sorts. (Leviathan, 24.) In the work, Discourse of Trade, Coyn and Credit, p. 44 ff., and p. 156, the absolute necessity of “head-work” as well as bodily labor, is conceded; but it is insisted that physicians, clergymen and jurists can never enrich a country, and that a relatively large number of them would even conduce to national poverty. (See Roscher, Geschichte der englischen Volkswirthschaftslehre, 138.) David Hume considers merchants as productive, but says that a doctor or lawyer can grow rich only at the expense of some one else. (Discourses, No. 4, On Interest.) Ferguson very cleverly compares such a valuation of national wealth to that of a miser. Hist. of Civil Society, VI, I.324.Similarly Lauderdale, Inquiry, 355; Lotz, Handbuch der Staätswirthschaft, I, § 39, and Rau, Lehrbuch I, § 195, concede only indirect productiveness to commerce. It may be shown, in a great many instances, that such productiveness exists side by side with direct productiveness, on account of the thousand ways in which all economic threads are interwoven with one another. Thus Paley remarks in his work on the Principles of Morals and Politics, that a tobacco manufacturer even may contribute indirectly to the cultivation of grain; an actor, to industry etc.325.Thus Sismondi, Nouveaux Principes, II, ch. 1, and, earlier, Mengotti Colbertismo, 317. (Cust.) See, on the other hand, Hermann, Staatsw. Untersuchungen, 34 ff. Even J.B. Say does no manner of justice, in this respect, to personal services. He speaks of produits qui ne s'attachent à rien qui s'évanouissent à mésure qu'ils naissent, qu'il est impossible d'accumuler, qui n'ajoutent rein à la richesse nationale. Compare Catéchisme (3d ed.) 52 ff., 174 ff. On the other hand Dunoyer, Libertê du Travail, L.V., remarks that here labor and its result are made to change places; the former like all labor is very perishable, the latter as lasting as in the case of other kinds of labor. In the one case the utility is fixed in things, in the other in persons. Ad. Müller, Elemente der Staatskunst passim, calls special attention to how the kinds of labor, called unproductive by Adam Smith, preserve the state, and in that way, all individual exchangeable goods. Similarly, Storch, Handbuch, I, 347; Steinlein, Handbuch, I, 460. Lauderdale (443), however, is correct when he says, that the continued duration of the product of labor depends, usually, more on the caprice of consumers than on the nature of the labor.326.Garnier calls attention to the fact, that there is a great quantity of material products, such as laces, perfumes etc., that can scarcely be ever used in further production, and, generally speaking, one's resources for the most part are not kept in lasting goods, but are preserved by the change of technic forms in production. Hermann, I, Aufl., 115.327.When Schön, Nat. Œkonomie, 33, ridicules the idea of the productiveness of personal services, by citing the instance of prostitution carried on as a trade, he forgets that many material goods also may conduce to the moral damage of the purchaser of them. It is said that there are in France 3,500 retailers and colporteurs of immoral writings and pictures, who sell yearly nine million numbers or pieces, at a cost of six million francs! (Moniteur, 9 Avril, 1853.)328.Compare Schäffle, Theorie der ausschliessenden Absatzverhältnise, 1867, 135. seq.329.Many of the socialists take a retrograde step in this respect, in as much as they consider only manual labor productive. Fourier's school particularly, declaim passionately against the unproductiveness of commerce and of most personal services. Compare V. Considérant, Destinée sociale, 1851, I, 44.330.Besides the above, see Gioja, N. Prospetto, I, 246 ff.; Scialoja, 42; J. B. Say, Traité, I, ch. 2; Hufeland, N. Grundlegung, I, 42, 54; Gr. Soden, Nat. Œkonomie, I, 142 ff. Hermann, St. Untersuchungen, 20 ff., distinguishes three politico-economical points of view; that of the producer, that of the consumer, and that of the whole nation's economy. The producer calls his labor productive, in case he receives back his outlay of capital with the rate of profit usual in the trade of the country. To this point of view, therefore, every service which is paid for, according to wish, seems productive. On the other hand, the consumer ascribes productiveness to all those kinds of labor the achievements of which he may use, and which he can obtain at a convenient price. Whenever, therefore, he pays for a service voluntarily, he acknowledges its productiveness. Lastly, from a national-economical point of view, all labor is considered productive which increases the quantity of goods exposed for sale in the market; and this, personal services do. The technic productiveness, which depends on the execution of the technic ideas floating before the mind of the workman, must be distinguished from this economic productiveness. It is possible that, technically labor may be very productive, and yet cause economic loss; for instance, the fine arts and the so-called master pieces of the trades! See Seneca, De Benef., II, 33. H. (33) furnishes a very good refutation of the doctrine that a great deal depends on whether the labor has been paid from capital or from income. Eiselen, Volkswirthschaft (1843), 27 ff., remarks, that the laborer, for instance, who grows corn, must besides look after his health and the preservation of his house; this is a part of his necessary aggregate labor. Why, then, should it be called unproductive when such secondary labor is performed by particular persons? Otherwise the farmer would have no time whatever for his principal business! Edinburgh Review, 1804, IV, 343 ff.; Wakefield, An Essay upon Political Economy, 1804, who is concerned mainly with the theory of the productiveness of labor. L. Lauderdale says, that when the nation's wealth is estimated according to its value in use, all useful labor is productive; and that when estimated according to its value in exchange, all labor that is paid is productive. (Inquiry, ch. 3.) Stein (Lehrbuch, 68; Tüb. Zeitschr., 1868, 230) conditions the notion of productiveness by the presence of a superfluity of values. But, it may be asked, does a family, which does no more than support itself, labor unproductively? (Compare, however, § 30.) J. S. Mill took a surprisingly retrograde step in the doctrine on this point, in his Principles, I, ch. 3. Compare his Essays on some unsettled Questions of Political Economy, No. 3. A still more surprising exaggeration in de Augustinis Instituzzioni di Economia sociale (Napoli 1837), who goes so far as to call a person guilty of arson a productive person because he has produced for himself “the pleasure of destruction”! More recently, von Mangoldt distinguishes between economic labor and the labor of culture: the latter is incorporated into the man himself, the former one employed on the external world, in order to transform it in a way corresponding to human wants. Viewed from the stand-point of Political Economy, the latter only is productive. (Volkswirthschaftslehre, 1865, 26 ff.)331.We might, indeed, compare original production, that which preceded all other, to eating; the trades, to digestion; commerce, to the movements of the several members of the body; personal services to inspiration, and yet all are equally necessary to the life of the body! Thus, Gamilh compares agriculture to the root of a tree of which the service rendered by the state is the top. The growth of the latter contributes, as well as that of the former, to the nutrition of the whole, and is far removed from exhausting the tree. Théorie de l' E.P., II, 46 ff. “Natural production” would, indeed, accomplish very little without the legal protection guaranteed by the state, or without the tools furnished by industry etc. But it is, besides, in most instances, a distortion of the truth to speak of productive and unproductive men or classes of men. These expressions are proper only when applied to individual kinds of labor. See Murhard, Ideen über Nat. Œk., 88 ff. Persons seriously ill are temporarily unproductive, and children who die early, are unproductive for their whole life.332.Not, however, in the case in which the loser estimates the pleasure of the play higher than the loss.333.J. B. Say, Traité, I. ch. 1.334.v. Cancrin, Œkonomie der menschlichen Gesellschaften, 1845, 10, speaks, in this case, of privative production. Among the Socialists, Bazard's expression l'exploitation de l'homme par l'homme, has found loud echo; instead of which only l'exploitation du globe par l'homme should be allowed to obtain. (Exposition de la Doctrine de St. Simon, 24.) But von Schröder had already warned the world of “imagined food” which led only to idleness. (F. Schatz- und Rentkammer, 191, 363.)335.Therefore, there should not be too many nor too highly salaried offices. See Storch, Nationaleinkommen, 33 ff.336.See v. Mangoldt, Volkswirthschaftslehre, 29 ff.337.Remained, and not become, poor, as is generally supposed; for the enormous wealth of Spain, under Ferdinand and Isabella, as well as during the early period of Charles V. is only a fable convenue. Charles V. said: France has a superabundance of everything, and Spain is in want of everything. See also the embassy report of Navagero (1526), Viaggio fatto in Spagna e in Francia (Venet., 1563), and Ranke, Fürsten und Volker, I, 393 ff.338.The prize was won by Arreta de Monteseguro. The author of the history of Portuguese Asia, translated by Stevens, is of opinion (III, ch. 6), that commerce is not a proper subject for serious history to treat.339.There is a very fine description of this spirit in Clenard, Epist. I. ad Latomum (1535 ff.) Compare Juvellanos, in Laborde, Itinéraire déscriptif, IV, 176. Townsend, Journey through Spain, II, 207, 117. Buckle, History of Civilization, II, ch. I. The census of 1788 gave the number of priests and monks, soldiers, mariners, nobles, lawyers, tax-gatherers, authors, students and domestics, at 1,221,000, in a total of 3,800,000 men; from which number there was a multitude of beggars, vagrants etc. to be deducted. Laborde, Itinéraire, II, 32 ff. The seventeen universities and the numberless small Latin schools, with their gratuitous instruction, and their many scholarships, misled a disproportionately large number to engage in study. At the beginning of this century, there were at least 200,000 priests, nuns (Geistliche), etc., in a population of from three to three and a half millions only. (Ebeling, Erdbeschreibung von Portugal, 66.) Senior shows that the poverty of the Osman is caused by too many state employees, tax-farmers and retail merchants. (Journal kept in Turkey and Greece, 1857-58.) Thus, also, J. Tucker, Four Tracts, 1774, 18, contrasts men engaged in industry with rich idlers, whose increase, possibly by immigration, would make the people a nation of “gentlemen and ladies, footmen, grooms, laundresses etc.” Schmitthener, N. Œk., 656, calls a condition such as that of Spain, “national-economical phthisis.”340.Такер, «Прогресс США», 137. Следующие данные также послужат для сравнения: В Бельгии в 1856 году было подсчитано, что, оставляя лиц sans profession без внимания, 45,6 процента были земледельцами, 37,2 промышленниками, 6,7 в торговле, 2,8 в свободных профессиях, 1,5 force publique, 2,1 propriétaires, rentiers, pensionnés, 3,7 domesticité. В Пруссии в 1871 году из всего мужского населения 28,6 процента были заняты в сельском хозяйстве, лесном хозяйстве, охоте и рыболовстве: 32,3 процента в горнодобывающей промышленности, промышленности, строительстве и на литейных заводах: 8,56 в торговле и коммерции; 20,3 в личных услугах и ремеслах, не относящихся ни к одной из вышеупомянутых групп; 2,3 в армии и на флоте; 3,7 в других призваниях; 2,7 были арендаторами, пенсионерами и лицами, которые жили продажей или сдачей в аренду домов, резервируя жилье для себя в них, и лицами, которые не дали отчета о своем призвании. (Preuss. statisc. Zeitschr., 1875, 32. ff.) Однако удивительно, что Amtl. Jahrbuch Энгеля, III, 1867, дает только 48 процентов как принадлежащих к первой категории и 25 ко второй. В королевстве Саксония в 1861 году 25,1 процента населения были земледельцами и лесоводами; 56,1 были заняты в промышленности; 7,7 в торговле и коммерции; 6,8 в искусстве, науке, службе государства и частных лиц; в то время как 4,1 процента были без какого-либо особого призвания или не указали такового. Бавария в 1852 году имела 67,9 процента своего населения, занятого в сельском хозяйстве; 22,7 в ремеслах и мануфактурах; 5,5 процента — лица, живущие на проценты со своих денег и выполнением высшего класса личных услуг; 1,9 в армии; и 2 процента зарегистрированных бедных. В Герман, Beiträge zur Statistik des Königreichs Bayern. Во Франции, согласно официальным отчетам, было:
Agriculteurs 61,46 процента в 1851 году, 51,49 процента в 1866 году; Industriels et commerçants 25,95 процента в 1851 году, 32,78 процента в 1866 году; Professions libérales 9,73 процента в 1851 году, 9,48 процента в 1866 году.
К чему следует добавить, что в 1851 году было 2,86 sans profession ou dont les professions n'ont pu être constatées; и что в 1866 году, с другой стороны, было 2,87 процента в professions se rattachant à l'agriculture, industrie et commerce. (Легойт.) В Англии и Уэльсе, оставляя без внимания домашний класс (женщины без независимых средств занятости, школьники, служанки и т. д.), а также «неопределенный класс», в 1861 году 25,3 процента населения были заняты в сельскохозяйственных занятиях; 60,7 в промышленных; 7,8 в коммерческих; и 6,06 в профессиональных занятиях. В Италии, опуская домохозяек, детей и немощных лиц, в 1862 году 57,4 процента населения были заняты в сельском хозяйстве; 22,9 в промышленных занятиях; 4 в торговле; и 3,9 процента в армии и в свободных профессиях. (Annali univ. di Statistica, Febbr., 1866.) О Голландии в середине 17-го века см. Дж. де Вит, Mémoires, 34 seq. 341.Csaplovics, Gemälde von Ungarn II, 1. Torrens, The Budget: On commercial and colonial Policy, 106 ff.342.Precisely as there are more people ruined by spirituous liquors than by bread. Time thieving is also more frequent among servants. There is scarcely anything in agriculture analogous to the lazzaroni who wait all day to help a gondola to land, to unload a coach, etc. There is more in the chase, in the fisheries, or in the cattle raising.343.Compare Bastiat, Harmonies économiques, ch. 17. Hence Sismondi accounts it one of the chief merits of the constitutional state, that in it, the population gardienne does not regulate its own remuneration. (N.P., I, 144.) Saint Simon, indeed, says that the French members of the Chambre, in his time, drew a revenue from the state, three times as large as from their own resources, and were, therefore, deeply interested in increasing the budget. (Vues sur la Propriété et la Législation, 1818.) I would call attention also to the national over-estimation and over-crowding of learned callings from which Germany suffered, even as far back as the time of Louis XIV. (v. Schröder, Fürstl. Schatz-und Rentkammer, 302 ff.); to the disproportionate number of keepers of public houses, which is related to the system of popular assemblies, and is a regular attendant upon Democracy (Bronner, Der C. Aargau, I, 451.) Taxation-legislation may here become a good means of popular education.344.This was recognized very early by Gregor. Tolsan, l.c. Ad. Müller, Elemente, II, 255. Storch, Handbuch, II, 229 ff. (Schleiermacher, Christ. Sitte, 668.) A. Smith, W. of N., II, ch. 5, ascribed greater productiveness to agricultural than to industrial labor; in the former case, not only human labor was put in operation, but the forces of nature were compelled to coöperate with them. Similarly, Malthus, Additions (1817) to the Essay on the Principle of Population, B. III, ch. 8-12. Principles of P. E., 217 ff. Both thus explain the rent of land, and so far as products, which have only value in exchange are concerned, they are right. Hence it is all the more surprising that Carey, the zealous advocate of a protective tariff and opponent of rent, comes back in this to Adam Smith. Principles of Social Science, 1858, II, 35, and passim. Compare also J. B. Say, Traité, II, ch. 8; Sismondi, N. P., II, ch. 5. For the best refutation of this view, see Ricardo, Principles, ch. 2, 3. Does not all labor put the force of nature in operation? Ad opera nihil aliud potest homo, quam ut corpora naturalia admoveat, reliqua natura intus transigit. (Bacon.) Similarly, Verri, Meditazioni, III, 1. An expression escapes even Ricardo himself (ch. 7), to the effect, that capitalists are the producing class.345.Relying on very superficial statistics of England and France, Ganilh advocates a theory of the productive forces of the several branches of economy the very reverse of Adam Smith's. He places foreign trade first; then follow wholesale trade, industry and agriculture. (Théorie, I, 240 seq.)346.Ausland, 1846, No. 54. Expressions still used in Europe, such as Spindelmagen (spindle-relation), Kunkellehen (apron-string-hold) etc., for instance, suggest this most ancient and purely family division of labor. The lower classes of the population, even in the most civilized countries, are wont to preserve some of the peculiar customs of very primitive times. Hence it is that among proletarians, the division of labor between males and females is still very small. The employments usual at different stages of life among men, and the costumes worn by them are much more uniform than among the higher classes. See Riehl, Die Familie, 1855, passim.347.As Dankwardt shows, the jus civile of the earliest Roman time is based on the condition of isolated labor, the later jus gentium, on the division of labor. N. Œk. und Jurisprudenz, 1857, Heft. I.348.Saxo Gramm., Hist. Dan. V, 101. Turner, Hist. of the A. Saxons B. VII, ch. 11. Nibel., 351 ff. There is a French proverb: du temps que la reine Berthe filait. Queen Bertha was a mythic daughter of Charlemagne. It may be that the character meant is the old German spinning goddess Berchta. Concerning the daughter of Otto the Great, see Dithmar, Merseb. II. Homer, Od. V, 31 ff.; X, 106; XXIII, 189 ff. Herodot., VIII, 137. Livy, I. 57.349.Eden, State of the Poor I, 558 ff. In the interior of Peru, the priest is also usually a shop-keeper (Pöppig, Reise, II, 365); in Canada, as in many of the villages of the Alps which are not often visited, a hotel keeper. In countries with an unadvanced civilization, the little division of labor that exists is also very awkwardly regulated. Thus in Russia, weak children are very frequently put to work on farms, while powerful men are found in the city offering all kinds of eatables and the pictures of saints for sale. (Storch, Gemälde des russischen Reichs II, 364. v. Haxthausen, Studien I, 335.)350.Babbage, Economy of Machinery, 1833, 201. L. Faucher, Angleterre II, Ch. “la Ville des Serruriers.” The industrial statistics of Paris, furnished by H. Say in 1847 and 1848, show that in that city alone there are 325 different branches of industry, 17 of which are concerned with the production of food; 21 with building; 32 with the manufacture of furniture; 21 with that of clothing; 36 with that of thread and tissues; 7 with skins and leathers; 14 with vehicles, saddlery, and military equipment; 33 with chemicals and pottery; 33 with working in metal, glass etc.; 35 in that of the precious metals and jewels; 27 with printing, engraving and paper; 15 with that of wooden-ware and wicker-ware; 34 with articles de Paris. Journal des Economistes, Janv., 1853, 107. According to the industrial almanac of Birmingham, there are in that city manufacturers of buttons in gold, silver, metal, mother-of-pearl etc.; manufacturers of hammers, ink-stands, coffin-nails, dog-collars, tooth-picks, stirrups, fish-hooks, spurs, pack-needles etc.351.And so with the subdivisions. Flannel is manufactured almost exclusively in Halifax, woolen blankets between Leeds and Huddersfield etc.352.The same division of labor was developed among the Dutch in the 17th century, and excited then the wonder of the English. See Sir W. Temple, Observations upon the U. Provinces, 1672, ch. 3. Works, I, 128, 143. In 1615, Montchrêtien held up the Flemish as a model to the French, in this respect.353.On the bees, see Virgil, Georg. IV, 158.354.The principle of the division of labor was known to the ancients: Xenophon, Cyri Discipl., VIII, 2, 5. Plato, de Rep., II, 369, III, 394, IV, 443; Isocrat., Busir., 8. Aristot., Polit., II, 8, 8. Among the more modern writers, compare Thomas Aquin., De Reg. pr., I, 1, II, 3. Luther (Works by Walch, I, 388), in his Commentary on Genesis, 3, 19. Petty, Several Essays, 1682, p. 113. Considerations upon the East India Trade, London, 1701. Roscher, Geschichte der englischen Volkswirthschaftslehre, 118. Mandeville, The Fable of the Bees, enlarged edition of 1723, p. 411. Berkeley, Querist, 1735, No. 415, 430, 520 ff., 586: “What is everybody's business is nobody's.” Harris, on Money and Coins (1757), I, 16. J. J. Rousseau, Emile (1762), L. III. Turgot, Sur la Formation et la Distribution des Richesses, § 3, p. 50, 62, 66. Diderot, Encyclopédie de l'Art, s. v. Art. J. Tucker, Four Tracts (1774), p. 25 ff. Boccaria, Economia pubblica, I, 1, 9. But the author to whom we owe most on this score is undoubtedly Adam Smith. To him we are indebted almost entirely for our knowledge of the natural laws developed in § 59 seq.355.According to Adam Smith, a nailer can make 2,300 nails (Rau says 3,000 shoemaker's tacks in the Odenwalde) per day; a smith who is only occasionally employed in the manufacture, from 800 to 1,000; and smiths who never made nails before, from 200 to 300. A clever filer makes 200 strokes in a minute; a skilled comb-maker can make in a day from 60 to 70 combs of such fineness that there are from 40 to 48 teeth to the inch in them; eight Liege brick-makers, working together, produce 4,800 bricks per day; children employed in a needle manufactory, in making the eyes of needles, grow so skillful at it that they can make a small hole in the finest hair and draw another hair through it. Rau, Lehrbuch I, § 115. The old proverb, “practice makes perfect,” is followed even by thieves in their great division of labor. See Thiele, Die jüdischen Gauner I, 87. Fregier, Des Classes Dangéreuses.356.Children, with their thinner fingers, can point twice as many needles in the same time as a grown person.357.The manufacture of English needles demands, on the part of workmen, degrees of skill so different that their pay varies from 6 pence to 20 shillings per day. If the most skillful workman were to manufacture whole needles alone, he would partly be obliged to be satisfied with one-fortieth of what he might otherwise receive. Babbage, loc. cit.358.In the case of machines and in the chemical branches of industry, the labor increases in a much smaller ratio than the material used in production.359.In opposition to monopolies, and to practical constraint which has its source in ignorance etc.360.Hence Torrens calls foreign trade the “territorial division of labour.” (Essay on the Production of Wealth (1821), 155 ff.)361.See Bastiat, Harmonies, ch. 1, for a very beautiful exposition of the doctrine that each man receives much more from society than he accomplishes on his part, for it.362.The working together of a great number of persons is often carried on to the detriment of agriculture, for each then waits for all the others to work, throws all the blame on them etc. (Columella, I, 9.) As many a housekeeper must have observed, two seamstresses or ironers accomplish, in a day, less than one, in two days. Of course, this rule does not apply in the case of work which cannot be performed by one man, under any circumstances, or the magnitude of which would easily discourage him, and in which mutual aid is easily obtained; as in the raising of heavy loads, the construction of roads, dikes etc.363.Ad. Smith, B., II, Introd. Hufeland, Neue Grundlegung, I, 215. In many instances, a division of labor, of course, favors the saving of capital. If every workman needed all the tools necessary to the work in which he participates, three-fourths of them would have to lie idle at present. J. Rae, New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy, 164.364.This necessity is observable, although in a peculiar form, even where what has been called the “despotic organization of labor” prevails, instead of freedom.365.In the highlands of Scotland, in Adam Smith's time, there were no smiths who manufactured nails only; for the reason that no smith had a market for more than 1,000 nails a year, that is not for so many as might be manufactured in a single day.366.It is of course very different when there is question of a foreign market, even if it be only indirectly. Thus, for instance, there are in the Hartz mountains, persons who are simply post-makers, trough-makers, chess-wood-makers, block-hewers, shingle-makers etc.367.Too much should not be inferred from the existence among the Egyptians of physicians, specialists for the several members of the body. Herodot., II, 84. Something analogous is to be found even among barbarous nations; but it is accounted for entirely by the superstition of the people. See Klemm, Kulturgeschichte, I, 266.368.In the whole of Hesse, there were under Philip the Magnanimous, only two apothecaries, one at Cassel and one at Marburg. Rommel, Gesch. v. Hessen, IV, p. 419, note. And there were no bakers among the Romans before the time of the war with Perseus. All the bread needed by the family was baked by the wife or by female domestics. Plin., H. N. XVIII, 28. The common oven in new towns marks the period of transition. Even yet, in the central part of France, there are localities where each family bakes its own bread for a whole month in advance; and, in the Alpine departments for even a year in advance. M. Chevalier, Cours II, 366.369.It is obvious from the foregoing that, in decaying nations, in which the market contracts and capital decreases, the division of labor also must grow less.370.According to Arago, a horse uses the same amount of force to draw 20 cwt. along an ordinary road that he does to draw 200 over a railroad track, or 1,200 on a canal. He could carry scarcely 2 or 3 on his back! Moniteur, 1838, No. 116. It is, however, certain that the introduction of our railroads has somewhat detracted from the advantages of coasts.371.Compare Humboldt, Essai politique sur l'Ile de Cuba, II, 205.372.Strabo, II, 121 ff. In Europe, there is one mile of coast to every 31 square miles in the interior; in North America, to 56; in South America, 91; in Asia, 100; in Africa, 142. (Humboldt.)373.If the original connection of the Caspian sea and the sea of Aral with the Frozen Ocean were still in existence, it is probable that an Asiatic Scandinavia would have been formed in consequence.374.What is true of the sea in this respect may be claimed, also, though in a less degree, for the streams that carry the civilizing fruits of the coasts far into the interior. Nearly all large cities not situated on the harbors of coasts derive their importance from rivers; especially when they have been built on spots adapted by nature to the transhipment of merchandise. That Venice finally eclipsed Genoa is to be ascribed, in greatest part, to its control of an important stream, the Po. The economic importance of Holland, of Hamburg and Bremen will, in the long run, bear the same relation to one another as the geographical importance of the valleys of the Rhine, Elbe and Weser. As nothing is more disastrous to a nation than the loss of its coast (we need only cite the efforts of the Lybian kings and, later, of Philip of Macedon to conquer the Greek colonies on their coasts; and in more recent times, of Russia before Peter the Great, or of the Zollverein without the shores of the German sea), so, also, the economic and political influence of a stream increases as one approaches its mouth. Hence the justification of the great interest taken by Germany and Austria in the question of the Danubian principalities. The United States recognized this fact when they purchased Louisiana for 80,000,000 francs. Bignon, Hist. de France III, 111 seq. Readers of history are familiar with the important part played by the three Asiatic Mesopotamias: that between the Euphrates and the Tigris; that between the Ganges and the Brahmapootra; that between the Hoang-Ho and the Yang-tse-Kiang, to which finally the Punjab might be added. This relation is recognized by popular consciousness, in the case of the Ganges, by the belief in the sacredness of the stream. No river has had so much influence on civilization as the Nile: its periodical risings have made the labor of agriculture extraordinarily easy; their extent and regularity favored the progress of astronomy; the flooding over of the land led to geodesy; the hydraulic labors necessitated by the rising of the waters produced a school of architecture to which the river furnished an excellent means of transportation for the enormous masses to be moved. K. Ritter, Erdkunde, I, p. 880 seq; VI, p. 1,168 seq. In this matter, also, America and Europe have the advantage over Asia and Africa. While the Danube is, in places, scarcely three German miles from the Rhine—which, however, flows in an almost opposite direction—in Asia, the eastern streams are separated from the western, and the northern from the southern, by a strip of land difficult to be traveled, and about 300 German miles in extent. Besides, the principal streams of northern Asia have their exit into the Frozen Ocean, a fact which diminishes their importance greatly. The source of the Missouri is only about one mile distant from the Columbia river, although the two flow towards opposite seas.375.The law governing the march of civilization from the mountain to the plain and to coast lands was observed even by Strabo, XIII, 592, and partly by Plato, De Leg., 677 ff.376.Thus, for instance, that all the customers of a shoemaker together form a shoe-association etc. Dunoyer, Liberté du Travail, L. IV, ch. 10.377.Storch, Handbuch, III, 188 ff. The Dutch traveler, Usselinx, speaks in a similar way of the imitativeness and many-sidedness of the Swedes (Argonautica Gustavica, 20). Chilian servants (peones) are a good combination of the cook, the muleteer, builder, courier etc. Once they have passed over a road, they never forget it. A knife stands them in stead of most tools, and pieces of leather in stead of nails. Pöppig, Reise, I, 171 ff.378.von Haxthausen, Studien, I, 63, 113. In 1827, a Russian hatter got 12 rubles for a hat, a German one 35 (Schön, N. Œkonomie, 78).379.See the report of a large manufacturer in Kohl, England und Wales, p. 332 seq.380.Raynal, Histoire des Indes (1780), L. XV.