CLIMATE AND TIME
FRONTISPIECE
W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinbr. and London.
КЛИМАТ И ВРЕМЯ В ИХ ГЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ВЗАИМОСВЯЗЯХ
A THEORY OF
SECULAR CHANGES OF THE EARTH’S CLIMATE
By JAMES CROLL
OF H.M. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SCOTLAND
LONDON
DALDY, ISBISTER, & CO.
56, LUDGATE HILL
1875
LONDON:
PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO.,
CITY ROAD.
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
На следующих страницах я постарался дать полное и краткое изложение фактов и аргументов, выдвинутых в поддержку теории вековых изменений климата Земли. Значительные части этого тома уже были опубликованы в виде отдельных статей в Philosophical Magazine и других журналах в течение последних десяти или двенадцати лет. Эта теория, особенно в той части, которая касается причин ледниковой эпохи, по-видимому, постепенно завоевывает признание среди геологов. Это, несомненно, объясняется значительно возросшими и постоянно растущими знаниями о ледниковых отложениях, что привело к почти всеобщему убеждению в том, что климат, подобный климату ледниковой эпохи, мог быть результатом только космических причин.
Значительное внимание было уделено возражениям и устранению небольших недоразумений, которые естественным образом возникли в отношении предмета, сравнительно нового и во многих отношениях сложного, а также сопряженного с серьезными трудностями.
Я старательно избегал введения чего-либо гипотетического характера. Все выводы основаны либо на известных фактах, либо на общепризнанных физических принципах. Короче говоря, цель работы, как будет показано во вступительной главе, состоит в том, чтобы доказать, что вековые изменения климата являются необходимым следствием общепризнанных физических факторов и что эти изменения, насколько это касается прошлых климатических условий земного шара, полностью отвечают требованиям геологов.
Этот том, хотя и не задуман как популярный трактат, будет, я полагаю, вполне понятным и доступным даже для читателей, не знакомых с физическими науками.
Я пользуюсь этой возможностью, чтобы выразить свою признательность моим коллегам, г-ну Джеймсу Гейки, г-ну Роберту Л. Джеку, г-ну Роберту Этериджу-младшему, а также г-ну Джеймсу Пейтону из Эдинбургского музея науки и искусства за их ценную помощь, оказанную во время подготовки этих страниц к печати. Благодарностью г-ну Джеймсу Бенни я обязан за подробный указатель в конце тома, а также за многие факты, касающиеся ледниковых отложений на западе Шотландии.
JAMES CROLL.
Эдинбург, март 1875 г.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
The Fundamental Problem of Geology.—Geology a Dynamical Science.—The Nature of a Geological Principle.—Theories of Geological Climate.—Geological Climate dependent on Astronomical Causes.—An Important Consideration overlooked.—Abstract of the Line of Argument pursued in the Volume 1
CHAPTER II.
OCEAN-CURRENTS IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT OVER THE GLOBE.
The absolute Heating-power of Ocean-currents.—Volume of the Gulf-stream.—Absolute Amount of Heat conveyed by it.—Greater Portion of Moisture in Inter-tropical Regions falls as Rain in those Regions.—Land along the Equator tends to lower the Temperature of the Globe.—Influence of Gulf-stream on Climate of Europe.—Temperature of Space.—Radiation of a Particle.—Professor Dove on Normal Temperature.—Temperature of Equator and Poles in the Absence of Ocean-currents.—Temperature of London, how much due to Ocean-currents 23
CHAPTER III.
OCEAN-CURRENTS IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT OVER THE GLOBE.—(Continued.)
Influence of the Gulf-stream on the Climate of the Arctic Regions.—Absolute Amount of Heat received by the Arctic Regions from the Sun.—Influence of Ocean-currents shown by another Method.—Temperature of a Globe all Water or all Land according to Professor J. D. Forbes.—An important Consideration overlooked.—Without Ocean-currents the Globe would not be habitable.—Conclusions not affected by Imperfection of Data 45
CHAPTER IV.
OUTLINE OF THE PHYSICAL AGENCIES WHICH LEAD TO SECULAR CHANGES OF CLIMATE.
Eccentricity of the Earth’s Orbit; its Effect on Climate.—Glacial Epoch not the direct Result of an Increase of Eccentricity.—An important Consideration overlooked.—Change of Eccentricity affects Climate only indirectly.—Agencies which are brought into Operation by an Increase of Eccentricity.—How an Accumulation of Snow is produced.—The Effect of Snow on the Summer Temperature.—Reason of the Low Summer Temperature of Polar Regions.—Deflection of Ocean-currents the chief Cause of Secular Changes of Climate.—How the foregoing Causes deflect Ocean-currents.—Nearness of the Sun in Perigee a Cause of the Accumulation of Ice.—A remarkable Circumstance regarding the Causes which lead to Secular Changes of Climate.—The primary Cause an Increase of Eccentricity.—Mean Temperature of whole Earth should be greater in Aphelion than in Perihelion.—Professor Tyndall on the Glacial Epoch.—A general Reduction of Temperature will not produce a Glacial Epoch.—Objection from the present Condition of the Planet Mars 54
CHAPTER V.
REASON WHY THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE IS COLDER THAN THE NORTHERN.
Adhémar’s Explanation.—Adhémar’s Theory founded upon a physical Mistake in regard to Radiation.—Professor J. D. Forbes on Underground Temperature.—Generally accepted Explanation.—Low Temperature of Southern Hemisphere attributed to Preponderance of Sea.—Heat transferred from Southern to Northern Hemisphere by Ocean-current the true Explanation.—A large Portion of the Heat of the Gulf-stream derived from the Southern Hemisphere 81
CHAPTER VI.
EXAMINATION OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.—LIEUT. MAURY’S THEORY.
Introduction.—Ocean-currents, according to Maury, due to Difference of Specific Gravity.—Difference of Specific Gravity resulting from Difference of Temperature.—Difference of Specific Gravity resulting from Difference of Saltness.—Maury’s two Causes neutralize each other.—How, according to him, Difference in Saltness acts as a Cause 95
CHAPTER VII.
EXAMINATION OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.—LIEUT. MAURY’S THEORY.—(Continued.)
Methods of determining the Question.—The Force resulting from Difference of Specific Gravity.—Sir John Herschel’s Estimate of the Force.—Maximum Density of Sea-Water.—Rate of Decrease of Temperature of Ocean at Equator.—The actual Amount of Force resulting from Difference of Specific Gravity.—M. Dubuat’s Experiments 115
CHAPTER VIII.
EXAMINATION OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.—DR. CARPENTER’S THEORY.
Gulf-stream according to Dr. Carpenter not due to Difference of Specific Gravity.—Facts to be Explained.—The Explanation of the Facts.—The Explanation hypothetical.—The Cause assigned for the hypothetical Mode of Circulation.—Under Currents account for all the Facts better than the Gravitation Hypothesis.—Known Condition of the Ocean inconsistent with that Hypothesis 122
CHAPTER IX.
EXAMINATION OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.—THE MECHANICS OF DR. CARPENTER’S THEORY.
Experimental Illustration of the Theory.—The Force exerted by Gravity.—Work performed by Gravity.—Circulation not by Convection.—Circulation depends on Difference in Density of the Equatorial and Polar Columns.—Absolute Amount of Work which can be performed by Gravity.—How Underflow is produced.—How Vertical Descent at the Poles and Ascent at the Equator is produced.—The Gibraltar Current.—Mistake in Mechanics concerning it.—The Baltic Current 145
CHAPTER X.
EXAMINATION OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.—DR. CARPENTER’S THEORY.—OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED.
Modus Operandi of the Matter.—Polar Cold considered by Dr. Carpenter the Primum Mobile.—Supposed Influence of Heat derived from the Earth’s Crust.—Circulation without Difference of Level.—A Confusion of Ideas in Reference to the supposed Agency of Polar Cold.—M. Dubuat’s Experiments.—A Begging of the Question at Issue.—Pressure as a Cause of Circulation 172
CHAPTER XI.
THE INADEQUACY OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY PROVED BY ANOTHER METHOD.
Quantity of Heat which can be conveyed by the General Oceanic Circulation trifling.—Tendency in the Advocates of the Gravitation Theory to under-estimate the Volume of the Gulf-stream.—Volume of the Stream as determined by the Challenger.—Immense Volume of Warm Water discovered by Captain Nares.—Condition of North Atlantic inconsistent with the Gravitation Theory.—Dr. Carpenter’s Estimate of the Thermal Work of the Gulf-stream 191
CHAPTER XII.
MR. A. G. FINDLAY’S OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED.
Mr. Findlay’s Estimate of the Volume of the Gulf-stream.—Mean Temperature of a Cross Section less than Mean Temperature of Stream.—Reason of such Diversity of Opinion regarding Ocean-currents.—More rigid Method of Investigation necessary 203
CHAPTER XIII.
THE WIND THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.
Ocean-Currents not due alone to the Trade-winds.—An Objection by Maury.—Trade-winds do not explain the Great Antarctic Current.—Ocean-currents due to the System of Winds.—The System of Currents agrees with the System of the Winds.—Chart showing the Agreement between the System of Currents and System of Winds.—Cause of the Gibraltar Current.—North Atlantic an immense Whirlpool.—Theory of Under Currents.—Difficulty regarding Under Currents obviated.—Work performed by the Wind in impelling the Water forward.—The Challenger’s crucial Test of the Wind and Gravitation Theories.—North Atlantic above the Level of Equator.—Thermal Condition of the Southern Ocean irreconcilable with the Gravitation Theory 210
CHAPTER XIV.
THE WIND THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION IN RELATION TO CHANGE OF CLIMATE.
Direction of Currents depends on Direction of the Winds.—Causes which affect the Direction of Currents will affect Climate.—How Change of Eccentricity affects the Mode of Distribution of the Winds.—Mutual Reaction of Cause and Effect.—Displacement of the Great Equatorial Current.—Displacement of the Median Line between the Trades, and its Effect on Currents.—Ocean-currents in Relation to the Distribution of Plants and Animals.—Alternate Cold and Warm Periods in North and South.—Mr. Darwin’s Views quoted.—How Glaciers at the Equator may be accounted for.—Migration across the Equator 226
CHAPTER XV.
WARM INTER-GLACIAL PERIODS.
Alternate Cold and Warm Periods.—Warm Inter-glacial Periods a Test of Theories.—Reason why their Occurrence has not been hitherto recognised.—Instances of Warm Inter-glacial Periods.—Dranse, Dürnten, Hoxne, Chapelhall, Craiglockhart, Leith Walk, Redhall Quarry, Beith, Crofthead, Kilmaurs, Sweden, Ohio, Cromer, Mundesley, &c., &c.—Cave and River Deposits.—Occurrence of Arctic and Warm Animals in some Beds accounted for.—Mr. Boyd Dawkins’s Objections.—Occurrence of Southern Shells in Glacial Deposits.—Evidence of Warm Inter-glacial Periods from Mineral Borings.—Striated Pavements.—Reason why Inter-glacial Land-surfaces are so rare 236
CHAPTER XVI.
WARM INTER-GLACIAL PERIODS IN ARCTIC REGIONS.
Cold Periods best marked in Temperate, and Warm Periods in Arctic, Regions.—State of Arctic Regions during Glacial Period.—Effects of Removal of Ice from Arctic Regions.—Ocean-currents; Influence on Arctic Climate.—Reason why Remains of Inter-glacial Period are rare in Arctic Regions.—Remains of Ancient Forests in Banks’s Land, Prince Patrick’s Island, &c.—Opinions of Sir R. Murchison, Captain Osborn, and Professor Haughton.—Tree dug up by Sir E. Belcher in lat. 75° N. 258
CHAPTER XVII.
FORMER GLACIAL EPOCHS.—REASON OF THE IMPERFECTION OF GEOLOGICAL RECORDS IN REFERENCE TO THEM.
Two Reasons why so little is known of Glacial Epochs.—Evidence of Glaciation to be found on Land-surfaces.—Where are all our ancient Land-surfaces?—The stratified Rocks consist of a Series of old Sea-bottoms.—Transformation of a Land-surface into a Sea-bottom obliterates all Traces of Glaciation.—Why so little remains of the Boulder Clays of former Glacial Epochs.—Records of the Glacial Epoch are fast disappearing.—Icebergs do not striate the Sea-bottom.—Mr. Campbell’s Observations on the Coast of Labrador.—Amount of Material transported by Icebergs much exaggerated.—Mr. Packard on the Glacial Phenomena of Labrador.—Boulder Clay the Product of Land-ice.—Palæontological Evidence.—Paucity of Life characteristic of a Glacial Period.—Warm Periods better represented by Organic Remains than cold.—Why the Climate of the Tertiary Period was supposed to be warmer than the present.—Mr. James Geikie on the Defects of Palæontological Evidence.—Conclusion 266
CHAPTER XVIII.
FORMER GLACIAL EPOCHS; GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF.
Cambrian Conglomerate of Islay and North-west of Scotland.—Ice-action in Ayrshire and Wigtownshire during Silurian Period.—Silurian Limestones in Arctic Legions.—Professor Ramsay on Ice-action during Old Red Sandstone Period.—Warm Climate in Arctic Regions during Old Red Sandstone Period.—Professor Geikie and Mr. James Geikie on a Glacial Conglomerate of Lower Carboniferous Age.—Professor Haughton and Professor Dawson on Evidence of Ice-action during Coal Period.—Mr. W. T. Blanford on Glaciation in India during Carboniferous Period.—Carboniferous Formations of Arctic Regions.—Professor Ramsay on Permian Glaciers.—Permian Conglomerate in Arran.—Professor Hull on Boulder Clay of Permian Age.—Permian Boulder Clay of Natal.—Oolitic Boulder Conglomerate in Sutherlandshire.—-Warm Climate in North Greenland during Oolitic Period.—Mr. Godwin-Austen on Ice-action during Cretaceous Period.—Glacial Conglomerates of Eocene Age in the Alps.—M. Gastaldi on the Ice-transported Limestone Blocks of the Superga.—Professor Heer on the Climate of North Greenland during Miocene Period 292
CHAPTER XIX.
GEOLOGICAL TIME.—PROBABLE DATE OF THE GLACIAL EPOCH.
Geological Time measurable from Astronomical Data.—M. Leverrier’s Formulæ.—Tables of Eccentricity for 3,000,000 Years in the Past and 1,000,000 Years in the Future.—How the Tables have been computed.—Why the Glacial Epoch is more recent than had been supposed.—Figures convey a very inadequate Conception of immense Duration.—Mode of representing a Million of Years.—Probable Date of the Glacial Epoch 311
CHAPTER XX.
GEOLOGICAL TIME.—METHOD OF MEASURING THE RATE OF SUBAËRIAL DENUDATION.
Rate of Subaërial Denudation a Measure of Time.—Rate determined from Sediment of the Mississippi.—Amount of Sediment carried down by the Mississippi; by the Ganges.—Professor Geikie on Modern Denudation.—Professor Geikie on the Amount of Sediment conveyed by European Rivers.—Rate at which the Surface of the Globe is being denuded.—Alfred Tylor on the Sediment of the Mississippi.—The Law which determines the Rate of Denudation.—The Globe becoming less oblate.—Carrying Power of our River Systems the true Measure of Denudation.—Marine Denudation, trifling in comparison to Subaërial.—Previous Methods of measuring Geological Time.—Circumstances which show the recent Date of the Glacial Epoch.—Professor Ramsay on Geological Time 329
CHAPTER XXI.
THE PROBABLE AGE AND ORIGIN OF THE SUN.
Gravitation Theory.—Amount of Heat emitted by the Sun.—Meteoric Theory.—Helmholtz’s Condensation Theory.—Confusion of Ideas.—Gravitation not the chief Source of the Sun’s Heat.—Original Heat.—Source of Original Heat.—Original Heat derived from Motion in Space.—Conclusion as to Date of Glacial Epoch.—False Analogy.—Probable Date of Eocene and Miocene Periods 346
CHAPTER XXII.
A METHOD OF DETERMINING THE MEAN THICKNESS OF THE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS OF THE GLOBE.
Prevailing Methods defective.—Maximum Thickness of British Rocks.—Three Elements in the Question.—Professor Huxley on the Rate of Deposition.—Thickness of Sedimentary Rocks enormously over-estimated.—Observed Thickness no Measure of mean Thickness.—Deposition of Sediment principally along Sea-margin.—Mistaken Inference regarding the Absence of a Formation.—Immense Antiquity of existing Oceans 360
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE PHYSICAL CAUSE OF THE SUBMERGENCE AND EMERGENCE OF THE LAND DURING THE GLACIAL EPOCH.
Displacement of the Earth’s Centre of Gravity by Polar Ice-cap.—Simple Method of estimating Amount of Displacement.—Note by Sir W. Thomson on foregoing Method.—Difference between Continental Ice and a Glacier.—Probable Thickness of the Antarctic Ice-cap.—Probable Thickness of Greenland Ice-sheet.—The Icebergs of the Southern Ocean.—Inadequate Conceptions regarding the Magnitude of Continental Ice 368
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE PHYSICAL CAUSE OF THE SUBMERGENCE AND EMERGENCE OF THE LAND DURING THE GLACIAL EPOCH.—(Continued.)
Extent of Submergence from Displacement of Earth’s Centre of Gravity.—Circumstances which show that the Glacial Submergence resulted from Displacement of the Earth’s Centre of Gravity.—Agreement between Theory and Observed Facts.—Sir Charles Lyell on submerged Areas during Tertiary Period.—Oscillations of Sea-Level in Relation to Distribution.—Extent of Submergence on the Hypothesis that the Earth is fluid in the Interior 387
CHAPTER XXV.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC ON CLIMATE AND ON THE LEVEL OF THE SEA.
The direct Effect of Change of Obliquity on Climate.—Mr. Stockwell on the maximum Change of Obliquity.—How Obliquity affects the Distribution of Heat over the Globe.—Increase of Obliquity diminishes the Heat at the Equator and increases that at the Poles.—Influence of Change of Obliquity on the Level of the Sea.—When the Obliquity was last at its superior Limit.—Probable Date of the 25-foot raised Beach.—Probable Extent of Rise of Sea-level resulting from Increase of Obliquity.—Lieutenant-Colonel Drayson’s and Mr. Belt’s Theories.—Sir Charles Lyell on Influence of Obliquity 398
CHAPTER XXVI.
COAL AN INTER-GLACIAL FORMATION.
Climate of Coal Period Inter-glacial in Character.—Coal Plants indicate an Equable, not a Tropical Climate.—Conditions necessary for Preservation of Coal Plants.—Oscillations of Sea-level necessarily implied.—Why our Coal-fields contain more than One Coal-seam.—Time required to form a Bed of Coal.—Why Coal Strata contain so little evidence of Ice-action.—Land Flat during Coal Period.—Leading Idea of the Theory.—Carboniferous Limestones 420
CHAPTER XXVII.
PATH OF THE ICE-SHEET IN NORTH-WESTERN EUROPE AND ITS RELATIONS TO THE BOULDER CLAY OF CAITHNESS.
Character of Caithness Boulder Clay.—Theories of the Origin of the Caithness Clay.—Mr. Jamieson’s Theory.—Mr. C. W. Peach’s Theory.—The proposed Theory.—Thickness of Scottish Ice-sheet.—Pentlands striated on their Summits.—Scandinavian Ice-sheet.—North Sea filled with Land-ice.—Great Baltic Glacier.—Jutland and Denmark crossed by Ice.—Sir R. Murchison’s Observations.—Orkney, Shetland, and Faroe Islands striated across.—Loess accounted for.—Professor Geikie’s Suggestion.—Professor Geikie and B. N. Peach’s Observations on East Coast of Caithness.—Evidence from Chalk Flints and Oolitic Fossils in Boulder Clay 435